Dealing with offending behaviour.

Question 1

What is custodial sentencing?

Answer 1

a decision made by a court that punishment for a crime should involve time being in custody (prison (incarceration) or in some other closed therapeutic or educational institution).

Question 2

What are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?

Answer 2

Deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and rehabilitaion.

Question 3

Deterrence?

Answer 3

the unpleasant prison experience is not only designed put of the individual from offending again (individual deterrence) but also put off society from offending (general deterrence). Individual deterrence is based on punishment in operant conditioning and general deterrence is based on vicarious reinforcement.

Question 4

Incapaciation?

Answer 4

the offender is taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending in order to protect the public, especially from those who are not able to control their behaviour. The need for incapacitation depends on the severity and nature of the crime.

Question 5

Retribution?

Answer 5

society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, and this is proportionate to the severity of the crime. The victim and family can feel a sense of justice. Based on the biblical notion; an eye for an eye. Many people feel prison is the best method for retribution.

Question 6

Rehabilitaion?

Answer 6

the offender can be reformed and made into a better person through some sort of education or therapy whilst in prison. They leave prison in a better position to take place in society, as they have been given a chance to reflect on their offence.

Question 7

What are the 3 psychological effects of custodial sentecning?

Answer 7

Stress and depression, institutionalisation and prisonisation.

Question 8

Stress and depression?

Answer 8

-Stress and depression– suicide rates are considerably higher in prison compared ot the general population, as are incidents of self harm. The stress of prison can increase risks of developing psychological disorders following release.

Question 9

Institutionalisation?

Answer 9

-Institutionalisation– having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, inmates may become so accustomed to them that they can no longer function in the real world.

Question 10

Prisonisation?

Answer 10

-Prisonization– prisoners are socialised into adopting an inmate code, which is behaviour that may be unacceptable in the outside world but is rewarded by the institution.

Question 11

What is recidivism?

Answer 11

a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour. In the context of crime, a convicted offender who repeatedly reoffends.
Tells us to what extent prisons are an effective deterrent.

Question 12

Why do recidivism rates vary?

Answer 12

It can be hard to obtain clear figures on recidivism rates, as it depends on if reoffending occurs within a year of release or longer.
Reoffending rates vary; with period of time after release, age of offender, crime committed and where the crime was committed.

Question 13

How do recidivism rates vary between countries?

Answer 13

Yukhnenko et al 2019 found recidivism rates in the UK have been around 45% in recent years.
In Norway, rates are as low as 20% where less is less emphasis on incarceration but more emphasis on rehabilitation and skills development.

Question 14

Strengths of custodial sentencing?

Answer 14

Provides opportunities for training and treatment- offenders may become better people and live a crime free life upon release. There is also access to education and training which may help them find employment upon release. Shirley et 2019 claimed offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend and prisons that offer these schemes have less violence.

Question 15

Limitations of custodial sentencing: criminal skills?

Answer 15

Offenders may learn to become better offenders through socialisation (differential association theory). They may acquire more criminal skills and enter criminal contracts within prison that continue upon release. This undermines any attempt to rehabilitate.

Question 16

Limitations of custodial sentencing: negative psychological effect?

Answer 16

Bartol et al 1995 suggested that imprisonment can be ‘brutal, demeaning and generally devastating’. According to the Ministry of Justice a record of 119 people took their own lives in prison in England and Wales in 2016, 9 times more than the general population.

Question 17

Limitations of custodial sentencing: psychosis?

Answer 17

A study by the Prison Reform Trust 2014 found that 25% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms of psychosis, which would make it hard to be rehabilitated. HOWEVER, this study does not include the number of inmates who had pre existing psychological issues before prison. So there may be some confounding variables.

Question 18

Limitations of custodial sentencing: purpose of prisons?

Answer 18

A survey by Onepoll in 2015 found that 47% saw the primary purpose of prisons to be for punishing offenders for wrongdoing. Many saw prisons as being too soft or like a holiday. However 40% of respondents thought the main purpose should be for rehabilitation, Overcrowding and lack of funding prevents this.

Question 19

What is restorative justice?

Answer 19

=A system of dealing with offending behaviour that focuses on the rehabilitation of the offender through reconciliation with the victim.
Typically involves offenders coming face-to-face with their victims. If done correctly it can be a crucial stage in the offenders’ rehabilitation and can help the victim put the incident behind them.

Question 20

Where does restorative justice come from?

Answer 20

Historically offenders were regarded as committing a crime against the state, now the emphasis has moved to the needs of the individual victim.

Question 21

What are the aims of restorative justice?

Answer 21

The victim and their recovery.
The offender and their rehabilitation process.

Question 22

What are the key features of restorative justice?

Answer 22

Trained mediator to supervise.
Non-courtroom setting.
Face to face meeting or a video link.
The survivor has the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the crime affected them, so the offender can comprehend the consequences of their actions.
Everyone is actively involved and the hope is a positive outcome for both parties.

Question 23

When is restorative justice done?

Answer 23

Pre trial.
Alongside a sentence.
Incentive to a reduced sentence.
Alternative to prison.

Question 24

What is restitution?

Answer 24

Traditionally, restitution is the monetary payment of an offender to the victim for the harm and damage caused by the offence.
Offenders may also repair damaged properties themselves.
It can also be more emotional in that the offender can support the healing process by rebuilding the survivor’s confidence and self esteem.

Question 25

What is the restorative justice council?

Answer 25

-An independent body whose role it is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice and to support survivors/practitioners.

Question 26

When else can restorative justice be used?

Answer 26

Conflict management in schools, workplaces and hospitals.

Question 27

Strengths of RJ: needs of survivor Shapland et al?

Answer 27

Shapland et al 2008 undertook a seven year research project which found 85% of survivors felt satisfaction with the process and 78% would recommend it. 60% felt it gave them closure and only 2% said it made them feel worse. So RJ achieves its aims.

Question 28

Strengths of RJ: recidivism rates strang et al?

Answer 28

Strang et al 2013 meta analysis of 10 studies showed restorative justice groups of offenders were significantly less likely to reoffend than the control group. The reduction was larger in those who committed violent crimes. Positive impact on offending.

Question 29

Weaknesses of RJ: offender focus?

Answer 29

Wood and Suzuki 2016 argue that restorative processes are not as survivor focuses as often reported. The process can become distorted and survivors are ‘used’ to rehabilitate offenders. The needs of the survivor may wrongly be a secondary objective.

Question 30

Weaknesses of RJ: abusing the system?

Answer 30

Gijseghem 2003 suggested offenders use RJ for lots of reasons; avoiding punishment, playing down their faults, taking pride in their relationship with the survivor. Not all offenders benefit from RJ and some go on to reoffend. The success of RJ depends on the offender genuinely wanting the make amends and if they regret hurt caused.

Question 31

What is anger management technique?

Answer 31

=a therapeutic technique that involves identifying the triggers of anger as well as learning techniques to calm down and deal with the situation in a positive way.

Question 32

What is the aim of anger management?

Answer 32

Aim is not to prevent anger but to recognise it and manage it.

Question 33

Where can anger management be used?

Answer 33

Can be used outside an institution too.

Question 34

Novaco 1975 cognitive factors as a trigger?

Answer 34

-Novaco 1975 suggested that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal that precedes aggressive acts.
-In some people anger is quick to surface especially in situations that are perceived to be anxiety inducing or threatening.

Question 35

How is anger management a form of cognitive behavioural therapy?

Answer 35

Anger management is a form of CBT where the individual is taught how to recognise these cognitive factors that trigger anger and encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict resolution.

Question 36

What are the stages of anger management?

Answer 36

cognitive preparation, skills acquisition, application practice.

Question 37

Stage 1: Cognitive preparation

Answer 37

requires the offender to reflect on past experience and their typical pattern of anger. The offender can identify those situations which trigger anger and the therapist will make it clear if they are irrational. When redefining the situation as non-threatening, the therapist may attempt to break down an automatic response.

Question 38

Stage 2: skills aqquisation?

Answer 38

Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help with anger provoking situations. Cognitive- self talk. Behavioural- training in how to communicate effectively. Physiological- deal with the physical reaction of anger such as meditation.

Question 39

Stage 3: application practice?

Answer 39

offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills in a controlled environment. In the role play, the offender and therapist will re-enact scenarios that in the past have resulted in anger. Requires commitment from the offender and bravery from the therapist. If successful, they receive positive reinforcement from the therapist.

Question 40

What is the effect of anger management on young offenders?

Answer 40

Keen et al 2000 studied the progress of young offenders in a recognised anger management scheme.
There were initial issues with taking the course seriously, but the final outcome was positive. Offenders reported increased awareness of anger management and an increased capacity for self control.

Question 41

What is the national anger management practice?

Answer 41

National Anger Management Practice was set up in 1992 and consists of eight two hour sessions.

Question 42

Strengths of anger management?

Answer 42

The benefits outlast those of behaviour modification– Tries to tackle the cognitive processes that cause offending whereas behaviour modification only deals with surface level behaviour. Gives offenders an insight into how to manage themselves outside of prison.

Question 43

Weaknesses of anger management: recidivism?

Answer 43

Blackburn 1993 suggested there may only be short term changes, and there is little evidence it reduces long term recidivism. The role play may not reflect all the triggers in the real world. So may not reduce reoffending.

Question 44

Weaknesses of anger management: individual factors?

Answer 44

Howells et al 2005 investigated Australian offenders and found that participating in anger management had little overall impact compared to a control group. However specific offenders showed immense progress, suggesting it may not be the best treatment for everyone.

Question 45

Weaknesses of anger management: expensive?

Answer 45

Requires training of highly skilled therapists who have to deal with violent behaviour. Many prisons may not have the resources to do this. Likely to need multiple sessions which adds costs, especially if they are not willing to take part.

Question 46

Weaknesses of anger management: success?

Answer 46

The success is often based on the willingness to take part so if prisoners are uncooperative it will not work.

Question 47

What is behavioural modifcation?

Answer 47

An application of the behaviourist approach to treatment, based on the principles of operant conditioning, with a general aim to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones using reinforcement.W

Question 48

What is the aim of behavioural modification?

Answer 48

Behaviour modification programmes aim to reinforce obedient behaviours in offenders and punish disobedient behaviour, in the hopes they will become extinct.

Question 49

What is a token economy?

Answer 49

Based on operant conditioning. Tokens are given each time a desirable behaviour is performed.
Desirable behaviours may be avoiding confrontation, keeping cells tidy, obeying prison rules.
Punishment occurs when not complying to these behaviours so tokens are taken away.

Question 50

How does token economy relate to reinforcement?

Answer 50

The tokens are secondary reinforcers, because they are not the reward in themselves, they are associated with actual rewards which are the primary reinforcers.

Question 51

Designing a token economy: target behaviours?

Answer 51

The units of behaviour should be objective and measurable, and agreed with prison staff and inmates in advance to the project.

Question 52

Designing token economy: scoring systems?

Answer 52

Staff and inmates should be made aware of how much each behaviour is ‘worth’. Some are regarded as more demanding so receive a greater reward. Some systems have directly rewarded tokens and others have a points system which is converted to tokens.

Question 53

Designing token economy: training staff?

Answer 53

prison staff need full training in order to implement the system. The aim is to standardise the procedures so staff are rewarding the same behaviours in the same way. Staff also have to keep a record of what tokens have been given in order to track inmates’ progress.

Question 54

Strengths of behavioural modification: research support?

Answer 54

Hobbs and Holt 1976; introduced a token economy programme across three different behavioural units. A significant difference was found in the positive behaviour compared to the control group. Field et al 2004 found that behaviour modification is generally effective, and those that did not respond later did when put on special programmes.

Question 55

Strengths of behaviour modification: easy to implement?

Answer 55

there is no need for specialist professionals and the token economy system can be used in any institution. Cost effective and easy to follow.

Question 56

limitations of behaviour modification: staff consistency?

Answer 56

Bassett and Blanchard 1977 found that benefits were lost once staff applied techniques inconsistently. This was due to factors such as lack of appropriate training or high staff turnover.

Question 57

Limitations of behaviour management: long term behaviour?

Answer 57

Blackburn 1993 suggests it has little rehabilitative value and any positive changes may be quickly lost once a prisoner is released. They may only play along with token economy to get rewards, not because they feel a responsibility to have taken on the desirable behaviours.

Question 58

Limitations of behaviour modification: ethical issues?

Answer 58

Although have been associated with decreased conflict and pressure on staff, Moya and Schtenburg 1974 described behaviour modification as manipulative and dehumanising. Participation is not optional and human rights organisations argue that the withdrawal of tokens is unethical.