Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure Flashcards
What is retrieval failure?
Retrieval failure is a form of forgetting which occurs when we don’t have the necessary success to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
According to the theory of retrieval failure, why do people forget information?
According to the theory of retrieval failure, the reason people forget information is because of insufficient cues. When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time. If these cues are not available at the time of recall, it may make it appear as if you have forgotten the information but, in fact, this is due to retrieval failure (not being able to access memories that are there).
What is a ‘cue’?
A cue is a ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory. Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning. For example, cues may be external (environmental context) or internal (mood or degree of drunkenness).
Who proposed the encoding specificity principle (ESP)?
Endel Tulving:
He reviewed research into retrieval failure and discovered a consistent pattern to the findings. He summarised this pattern in what he called the encoding specificity principle.
What is Tulving’s encoding specificity principle?
The ESP states that if a cue is to help us to recall information it has to be present at encoding (when we learn the material) and at retrieval (when we are recalling it). If the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different (or if cues are entirely absent at retrieval) there will be some forgetting.
Some cues are linked to the material-to-be-remembered in a meaningful way. How are these cues utilised within society?
Such cues are used in many mnemonic techniques.
Give two examples of non-meaningful cues
Context-dependent forgetting (external cues) and state-dependent forgetting (internal cues).
Who conducted research into context-dependent forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley conducted research into context-dependent forgetting.
How did Godden and Baddeley conduct their research into context-dependent forgetting?
They carried out a study of deep-sea divers working underwater. In this situation it is crucial (a matter of life or death) for divers to remember instructions given before diving about their work under water. The divers learned a list of words wither on land or underwater and were then asked to recall the words either on land or underwater.
How many conditions were there in Godden and Baddeley’s study?
There were four conditions in Godden and Baddeley’s study:
- Learn on land-recall on land
- Learn on land-recall underwater
- Learn underwater-recall on land
- Learn underwater, recall underwater
What did Godden and Baddeley find from their research into context-dependent forgetting?
Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions. This is because the external cues available at learning were different from the ones at recall. This therefore led to retrieval failure.
Who conducted research into state-dependent forgetting?
Carter and Cassaday
How did Carter and Cassaday investigate state-dependent forgetting?
They gave anti-histamine drugs to their participants. These drugs had a mild sedative effect making the participants slightly drowsy. This creates an internal physiological state different from the ‘normal’ state of being awake and alert. The participants had to learn lists of words and passages of prose and then recall the information.
How many conditions were created in Carter and Cassaday’s study?
There were four conditions in Carter and Cassaday’s study:
- Learn on drug-recall on drug
- Learn on drug-recall off drug
- Learn off drug-recall on drug
- Learn off drug-recall off drug
What did Carter and Cassaday find from their investigation into state-dependent forgetting?
In the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse. So when the cues are absent, there is more forgetting.
