Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure Flashcards
What is a cue?
Any stimulus that can tigger memory.
What is retrieval failure?
Where the information is in LTM, but cannot be accessed. Information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not accessible. It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.
What are the two types of forgetting?
- Context-dependent forgetting
- State-dependent forgetting.
What does the Encoding Specificity principle state?
- That a cue doesn’t have to be exactly right but the closer the cue is to the original item, the more useful it will be.
What is context dependent cue (external)?
The improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context (environment) present at encoding and retrieval are the same.
What is state-dependent cue? (internal)
When memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness (same emotional state) as they were when the memory was formed.
Describe the study to investigate that supports context - dependent forgetting.
Golden and Baddeley (1975)- deep sea divers working underwater. Divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on the land, then asked to recall words either on land or underwater. Condition 1= Learn on land- recall on land
Condition 2= Learn underwater- recall on land
Condition 3= Learn on land-recall underwater
Condition 4= Learn underwater- recall under water. Findings were that 40% lower recall in non - matching conditions, resulting in retrieval failure.
Describe another study that supports context-dependent forgetting.
Abernethy (1940) arranged for a group of students to be tested each week. There were 4 experimental conditions in this study. The students were tested in their usual teaching room by their usual instructor, tested in their usual teaching room by a different instructor, tested in a different room by their usual instructor or tested in a different room by a different instructor. The students who where tested by their usual instructor in their usual teaching room performed best. She found that superior students were the least affected by the changes and inferior students were the most. concluding that familiar things/context (the room and instructor) can act as a memory cue.
Describe the study that supports state-dependent forgetting.
Goodwin et al (1969) investigated state-dependent forgetting. In the study, the procedure involves him asking male volunteers to remember a list of words when they were either drunk or sober. The participants were either asked to recall a list of words after 24 hours when some were sober, whilst others were still drunk. The researchers found that those participants who were drunk when learning were better able to recall whilst drunk. The researchers concluded that information learned drunk is more available when in the same state later supporting the idea of state dependent forgetting.
A03: Retrieval failure
+ Research support
+Real world application
- Methodological criticisms
- Extreme situations
A03: Research support
The wealth of research evidence that has documented the importance of retrieval cues or memory is a real strength of this explanation of forgetting. Such research includes a lab, field and natural experiments as well as anecdotal evidence. For example, Tulving and Pearle Stone (1966), in a lab experiment, demonstrated the power of retrieval cues, whilst a field experiment by Abernethy (1940) demonstrated the importance of context-dependent learning among a group of students studying a course. Because much of the evidence is relevant to everyday memory experiences, the evidence has high ecological validity.
A03: Real world application
Although Baddeley suggested that context-related cues may appear to not have a very strong effect on forgetting, he still argues that they might have some importance, especially in real life. For instance, many people have experienced going downstairs for something but forgetting what they needed when they’re there, when they come back up they remember again. It is possible that when you’re having trouble remembering something, try and recall the environment in which you learnt it first. This is in fact a basic principle of the cognitive interview, a method of getting eyewitnesses to crimes to recall more information. This shows how research into retrieval failure can suggest strategies for improving recall in real-world situations, such as taking exams or giving eyewitness testimony.
A03: Methodological criticisms
Many of the studies into retrieval failure in the absence of cues were conducted in a laboratory. This is an artificial environment using artificial stimuli. The studies, therefore, lack both ecological validity and mundane realism as it may not be possible to generalise their findings to everyday life and situations. Where more meaningful stimuli are usually encountered. This, therefore, lowers the usefulness of retrieval failure as a reason for forgetting.
A03: Extreme situations
One limitation of Godden and Baddeley’s research can be seen in the fact it made use of extreme situations. This can be seen by the fact that contexts such as above or below water are more extreme than the cues seen in real life. This is a limitation of the theory as it reduces the theory’s face validity
