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ENI2 > Exotics endocrinology > Flashcards

Exotics endocrinology Flashcards

1
Q

List the common endocrinopathies of ferrets

A
  • Hyperadrenocorticism
  • Insulinoma
  • Persistent oestrus
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Hypothyroidism
  • Phaechromocytoma
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2
Q

List the common endocrinopathies of guinea pigs

A
  • Cystic ovaries
  • Alopecia of pregnancy and lactation
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Hyperthyroidism
  • Hyperadrenocorticism
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3
Q

What are the most common endocrinopathies of the following species?

a: rat
b: syrian hamster
c: chinese hamster, degu and chinchilla
d: gerbil
e: rabbit

A

a: pituitary gland adenoma
b: hyperadrenocorticism
c: diabetes mellitus
d: cystic ovaries, diabetes mellitus, HAC
e: diabetes mellitus, adrenal gland tumours

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4
Q

Compare insulinomas in ferrets and dogs

A

Tend not to be malignant in ferrets unlike in dogs, but often recur following surgery

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5
Q

What are insulinomas?

A

Small tumours of pancreatic beta-cells that produce excess insulin resulting in hypoglycaemia

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6
Q

What condition is often concurrent with insulinomas in ferrets?

A

Hyperadrenocorticism

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7
Q

What has been suggested as a cause of insulinomas in ferrets?

A

Feeding of processed dry foods high in carbohydrate

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8
Q

Describe the clinical signs of insulinomas in ferrets

A
  • Varying degrees of hindlimb weakness
  • Hypersaliation and pawing at mouth (nausea, but oral obstruction is a differential)
  • Collapse
  • Coma
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9
Q

How are endocrine diseases diagnosed in exotic pets?

A
  • Lack of specific hormone tests for many species

- Thorough clinical exam and diagnostics to rule out other causes

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10
Q

Outline the diagnosis of ferret insulinomas

A
  • Blood glucose <3.4mmol/l following 4hr fast considered diagnostic if compatible clinical signs
  • Insulin:glucose ratio may help but false +ves and -ves occur
  • Exploratory surgery
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11
Q

What is the key consideration if using human glucometers on ferrets?

A

Give falsely low reading, up to 25% lower

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12
Q

Discuss the surgical treatment of ferret insulinomas

A
  • Nodulectomy or partial pancreatotomy may give 12mo remission
  • Often magnification or touch to find nodules
  • Lack of ability to feel does not preclude presence
  • Not all nodules on pancreas are insulinomas
  • Surgery ideal, often for younger ferrets, less for older ferrets or where surgery previously failed
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13
Q

Describe the medical treatment of ferret insulinomas

A
  • Feed small, frequent meals
  • Prednisolone +/- diazoxide
  • Often give 6-18 months control
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14
Q

Identify the common disorders of calcium metabolism in birds

A
  • Vit D3 deficiency from diet or lack of UV-B
  • Egg laying leading to hypocalcaemia
  • Medullary hyperostosis in laying female
  • Hypocalcaemia
  • Hypercalcaemia
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15
Q

Explain the role of UV-B in vit D3 deficiency in birds

A
  • UV-B acts on vit precursors in cutaneous tissues and preen gland to obtain vit D3
  • Often lack UV-B as windows filter this out
  • Requirement for UV-B is species dependent
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16
Q

Outline the role of medullary bone in the production of eggs

A
  • 30-40% of calcium for eggs from medullary bone

- Some birds prepare for laying by storing additional calcium in bones

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17
Q

Describe medullary hyperostosis

A
  • Occurs in laying female ~6 weeks before laying of eggs
  • lay down additional calcium to use later
  • Under influence of oestrogen and vit D
  • Can be normal or abnormal
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18
Q

Give causes of abnormal medullary hyperostosis in birds

A
  • Cyst on ovary
  • Lack of egg production
  • male budgies with testicular tumours
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19
Q

List the potential causes of hypocalcaemia in birds

A
  • Seed based diet
  • Carnivorous diet
  • Insectivorous diet
  • UV-B deficiency in some birds
  • Multiple clutching
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20
Q

Explain how a seed based diet can lead to hypocalcaemia in birds

A

Seed based diets deficient in calcium and vit D3, contain excessive phosphorous

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21
Q

Explain how a carnivorous diet can lead to hypocalcaemia in birds and reptiles

A

Neonatal prey or too large prey results in inverse Ca:P ratio

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22
Q

Explain how an insectivorous diet can lead to hypocalcaemia in birds and reptiles

A

Captive farmed insects, or incorrect insects for the species, may have an inverse Ca:P ratio

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23
Q

Explain how multiple clutching can lead to hypocalcaemia in birds

A
  • Remove each clutch after laying, hens lay another clutch
  • Get progressive decrease in quality of eggs, and hen will become deficient
  • May cause bone disease in offspring
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24
Q

Describe the clinical signs of hypocalcaemia in adult birds

A
  • Lethargy
  • Ataxia
  • Seizures
  • Diarrhoea
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25
Q

Describe the clinical signs of hypocalcaemia in breeding females

A
  • Egg binding
  • Soft-shelled eggs
  • Infertility
  • Osteomalacia
26
Q

Describe the clinical signs of hypocalcaemia in growing birds

A

Skeletal abnormalities and/or fracture (osteodystrophy)

27
Q

Describe a dermatological sign that may occur in birds of all ages as a consequence of hypocalcaemia

A

Feather picking due to bone and joint pain

28
Q

Describe the treatment of hypocalcaemic seizures in birds

A
  • Calcium gluconate 10% IM or slow iv
  • Diazepam
  • Isoflurane anaesthesia to control seizures and facilitate diagnostic procedures such as blood sampling
29
Q

Describe the treatment of fractures in birds

A
  • Cage rest, analgesia, splint in some cases
  • Fixation with implants usually contraindicated due to fragility of bones
  • Provide padded floors and lowered perches
30
Q

List the causes of hypercalcaemia in birds

A
  • Increased oestrogen levels
  • production of calcium binding proteins in reproducing females
  • Hypervitaminiosis D and excessive dietary calcium intake
31
Q

What are the potential outcomes of pathological hypercalcaemia in birds?

A
  • Soft tissue mineralisation
  • Nephrocalcinosis
  • Visceral and articular gout
32
Q

Outline the diagnosis of hypocalcaemia in birds

A
  • History (diet, access to UV-B, egg laying)
  • total and ionised calcium, albumin, ALKP
  • Whole body radiographs
  • Serum PTH and vit D3 analysis
  • Bone and eggshell analysis in some cases
33
Q

Evaluate the significance of radiographs in the diagnosis of hypocalcaemia in birds

A
  • Normal radiograph does not mean normal calcium

- Need to lose 30% calcium from bone to show radiographic changes

34
Q

Describe how vit D3 is obtained by reptiles

A
  • Some from diet, but not enough for many
  • Main source is by action of UV-B on precursors in cutaneous tissue, essential for proper calcium metabolism in these species
35
Q

Explain the importance of temperature in vit D3 synthesis

A

Reaction is temperature dependent, suboptimal will result in inadequate vit D3 synthesis and subsequent deficiency. Light and heat source need to be together

36
Q

Compare the calcium metabolism at egg laying in birds and reptiles

A

Similar, other than that medullary hyperostosis does not occur in reptiles

37
Q

Explain what is unusual about calcium storage in geckos

A
  • Many gecko species have endolymphatic calcium sacs in pharynx
  • More pronounced in reproductively active females
38
Q

Explain how herbivorous diets may lead to hypocalcaemia in reptiles

A
  • Often have inverse Ca:P ratio

- Or contain phytates and oxalates which may further reduce calcium availability in the diet

39
Q

What is the most common endocrine condition in captive reptiles?

A

NSHP - nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism

40
Q

What conditions are associated with hypocalcaemia in reptiles

A
  • Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism

- Renal secondary hyperparathyroidism

41
Q

Describe the clinical signs of hypocalcaemia in reptiles

A
  • Muscle tremor, fasciculations, toe twitching
  • Abnormal gait, weakness, dysecdysis
  • Constipation, egg binding, cloacal organ prolapse
  • Tongue dysfunction in chameleons
  • Skeletal deformity and pathological fractures
42
Q

Describe the diagnosis of hypocalcaemia in reptiles

A
  • History: diet, UV-B, egg laying
  • Total and ionised calcium, albumin and ALKP
  • Whole body radiographs (2)
  • (Vit D3 analysis)
43
Q

Describe the treatment of hypocalcaemia in reptiles

A
  • Provide access to appropriate UV-B lamp with access to unfiltered sunshine whenever possible
  • Convert to an appropriate supplemented diet
  • Consider ovariosalpynghysterectomy once stable esp. in prolific egg layers e.g. bearded dragon, yeme chameleon
  • Clacium gluconate 10% IM
  • Calcium glubionate/lactobionate PO
44
Q

Describe the treatment of hypocalcaemic bone disease in reptiles

A
  • Cage rest, analgesia (tramadol, meloxicam), splints
  • Fixation with implants contraindicated
  • May require euthanasia
45
Q

List the causes of hypercalcaemia in reptiles

A
  • Increased oestrogen levels and production of calcium-binding proteins in reproducing females
  • Hypervitaminosis D
  • Excessive dietary calcium
  • Primary hyperparathyroidism
  • Osteolytic bone lesions
46
Q

What are the potential consequences of pathological hypercalcaemia in reptiles?

A
  • Soft tissue mineralisation
  • Nephrocalcinosis
  • Visceral and articular gout
47
Q

How does the calcium metabolism of rabbits differ to that of most other mammals?

A
  • Rabbits passively absorb majority of ingested calcium in gut independently of vitamin D
  • Excrete excess calcium
48
Q

What may hypercalcaemia be indicative of in rabbits?

A

Renal disease (reduced excretion)

49
Q

What may happen to the urine in rabbits with excessive dietary calcium and/or complexes with inflammatory proteins?

A

Urine “sludge” and uroliths may develop

50
Q

What conditions predispose rabbits for the formation of urine “sludge”

A
  • Urinary tract stasis due to urinary tract obstruction
  • Pain
  • Degenerative joint disease
  • Obesity
  • Confinement
51
Q

What may cause hypocalcaemia in rabbits?

A
  • Altered Ca:Phos ratio

- Calcium deficient diet

52
Q

Describe the consequences of hypocalcaemia in rabbits

A
  • Demineralisation of the skull, teeth and skeleton, lumbar vertebrae first
  • Spine fractures and dental disease common
  • PTH increases RBC osmotic fragility causing anaemia
53
Q

In what normal period may hypocalcaemia be seen in the rabbit?

A

In the periparturient period

54
Q

List potential causes of hypercalcaemia in rabbits

A
  • Increased dietary intake
  • Renal disease
  • Primary hyperparathyroidism
  • Hypervitaminosis D
  • Osteomyelitis
  • Paraneoplastic syndrome e.g. thymoma
55
Q

Describe the potential outcomes of hypercalcaemia in rabbits

A
  • Persistently raised calcium may result in dystrophic calcification, particularly in aorta and kidneys
  • Hypermineralisation of skeleton may also occur
56
Q

Describe the common history for a hypercalcaemic rabbit

A
  • Losing weight
  • Painful
  • Lethargic
57
Q

Compare the radiographic bone density of cats and rabbits

A

Rabbits have normally lower bone density than a cat (therefore need to compare to rabbit radiographs to identify excessive calcification of bones in rabbits)

58
Q

Describe the pathophysiology of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in exotic pets

A
  • Decreased calcium leads to increased PTH, PTH gland hyperplasia
  • Increased PTH increases calcium mobilisation from bone leading to demineralisation of bone, replaced with fibrous connective tissue
59
Q

Describe the biochemistry and haematology abnormalities that may be noted as a result of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in exotic pets

A
  • Total ionised calcium low or normal
  • Serum alkaline phosphatase often raised
  • Exception: adults, esp. African Greys presenting with hypocalcaemia may have normal skeleton and normal serum ALKP
60
Q

Provide an explanation for the presentation of secondary hyperparathyroidism in adult african grey parrots

A
  • Hypocalcaemia, normal skeleton, normal serum ALKP

- Low calcium and vit D in diet resulting gin reduced bone mobilisation and osteoclast dysfunction

61
Q

Outline the treatment for nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in exotic species

A
  • Convert to appropriate diet for species
  • Use Ca/Vit D supplement if unable
  • Provide access to unfiltered sunshine and/or avian UV-B lamp
    _ educe reproductive drive
62
Q

How can reproductive drive be reduced in birds?

A
  • Shorten day length
  • Remove nest sites
  • Remove mates (may be the owner)
  • Improve diet
  • +/- pharmacological intervention

ENI2 (10 decks)

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