Exceptional Learners Test #2 Flashcards
sensory impairments include:
blindness, visual impairments, deafness, and hearing impairments
a person who needs 90db of sound level to hear is classified as…
deaf
those who require between 0-90db of sound level are classified as…
having a hearing impairment
deafness and hard of hearing are defined/categorized by clinicians based on…
measurable degree of hearing impairment
how is deafness/hard of hearing measured?
decable level
what dB level is the point in which an average person can detect faintest sounds?
0dB
How may a person who have deafness at birth prefer to be considered as?
Deaf (capital D) and may consider themselves to be a part of the deaf community
What category of deafness is deafness at birth?
congenitally deaf
what is congenitally deaf?
deafness at birth
what category of deafness is acquired after birth
adventitiously deaf
what is adventitiously deaf?
a deafness acquired after birth (illness/accident)
what are the 3 parts of the outer ear?
- auricle/pinna
- canal
- tympanic membrane
what are the 3 parts of the middle ear?
- malleus
- sound transmitted from eardrum to oval window
- eustachian tube
what are the 2 parts of the inner ear?
- cochlea
- auditory nerve
what are the 3 parts of the ear?
- outer
- middle
- inner
where do causes for hearing impairments issues arise from?
problems in the outer, middle, or inner ear
what is the most common cause of middle ear hearing impairment?
Otis media (middle ear lining inflamed and cavity fills with fluid
where do the most severe types of hearing impairment occur?
inner ear
what causes the most severe type of hearing impairment?
maternal rubella
meningitis
Rh factor
prematurity with Apnea (failure to breath after birth)
what is the most impacted area of learning for students who have a hearing impairment or deafness
reading and production of language
define a physical disability (PD)
limitations in physical areas that interfere with functioning to such an extent that supports are required
what are the two classifications of physical disabilities
- congenital (at birth)
- acquired (accident/illness)
what are the 4 levels of a physical disability
- acute
- chronic
- episodic
- progressive
define an acute physical disability
severe, but with treatment recovery of most function can occur
define a chronic physical disability
ongoing and not severe, but little to no recovery of function even with treatment
define an episodic physical disability
recurs but normal functioning most of the time
define a progressive physical disability
worsens over time
what is the prevalance rate of PD
more students today with PD than 30 years ago; due to improvements in medical treatments and tech to save lives with leads to more newborns who have severe health/physical injury and/or disability
what is Neuromotor Impairment
a type of PD which is result of impaired functioning in brain or spinal cord; affects ability to move parts of body (paralysis/muscular fucntion)
What is cerebral palsy? (CP)
an example of a neuromotor impairment PD
damage to the brain before it has fully developed
what can CP effect?
a persons posture, balance, ability to: move, communicante, eat, sleep, and/or learn
what differs for each person with CP?
the parts of the body affected the level of severity, and combination of symptoms
how is CP described?
by the way it affects movement, part(s) of body affected, and how sever it is
range of effect in CP and some examples
depends on damage
- weakness in one hand
- limited speech
- minor-severe paralysis
- cognitive delays
what are the 3 categories of CP
- quadriplegia
- diplegia
- hemiplegia
what is quadriplegia (CP)
bilateral CP
both arms and legs affected; the muscles of the trunk, face, and mouth may be affected
what is diplegia (CP)
bilateral CP
both legs affected; the arms may be affected to a lesser extent
what is hemiplegia (CP)
unilateral CP
one side of the body ; one arm and one leg is affected
do all children with CP need learning supports?
depending on the severity, some children may or may not need learning supports
what can you ensure in your classroom for students with CP?
that the classroom space suits students’ needs for mobility
what are some examples of educational supports within a classroom for students with CP
computers with scanners
onscreen keyboards
head operated pointing devices
voice recognition software
electric wheelchairs with computer boards
what are some posturing support techniques for students with CP
assistive devices to aid with activities of daily living
assist in change in position every 20-30 minutes
assist with stretching
what are orthopedic/muskuloskeletal disorders?
a type of physical disability in which defects or diseases of the muscles/bones that cause difficulty walking, standng, sitting, or using hands
what is Muscular Dystrophy? (MD)
a type of muscular dystrophy PD
degenerative, hereditary disease causing a progressive weakening of the muscle tissues
what are two examples of Muscular Dystrophy?
- Duchenne MD
- Facioscapulohemeral
what is Duchenne MD? (PD)
causes muscle weakness that starts in the pelvis and thighs and spreads to arms legs and trunk
what are some details of Duchenne MD (PD)?
mainly affects boys, usually age 3-5
most can no longer walk by 10-12
can cause problems in breathing/heart
most die in late teens/early 20s
what causes Duchenne MD? (PD)
a gene mutation that affects the production of a protein called dystrophin
linked to X-chromosome
what is facioscapulohumeral MD? (PD)
a genetic muscle disorder in which the muscles of the face, shoulder blades, and upper arms are effected
what are some details of facioscapulohumeral MD?
typically appears in teens of either gender
develops slowly (facial movements)
normal lifespan
what is the cause of facioscapulohumeral MD?
pieces of a gene called DUX4 are abnormally activated in FSHD-affected cells leading to the production of toxic proteins
CAUSED BY GENES
what are some other examples of Physical Disabilites?
severe asthma
AIDS
diabetes
cystic fibrosis
juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA)
define a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
an insult to the brain, not degenerative or congenital, but caused by an external, physical force that may produce diminished or altered state of consciousness, which can result in an impairment of cognitive abilities and/or physical functioning
what can a TBI also effect?
the disturbance of behavioural or emotional functioning
how is the a TBI measured?
levels of severity measured by altered state of consciousness using a Glasgow Coma Scale
what are the 3 levels of severity of a TBI
- Mild TBI (score of 13-15 on GCS)
- Moderate TBI (score of 9-12 on GCS)
- Severe TBI (score of 8 or less on GCS)
the impact of a TBI on a child depends on:
- the site of the trauma (frontal vs temporal lobe)
- the age of the child (stage of brains development)
- other co-occuring injuries/health concerns
what are some causes of a TBI?
- an outside force impacts the heading causing the brain to move back and forth
- a direct blow to the head
- a rapid acceleration and deceleration of the head
what is the highest cause of TBI’s?
transportation
what is the prevalence rate of TBI’s
varies; hard to measure accurately due to effects changing over time)
what is the incidence rate of school aged children who acquire a TBI each year?
0.5%
what percentage of children who have a TBI will have lasting effects?
3%
what is the gender difference within people with TBI’s
more males than females
what are some difficulties experienced post-TBI
remembering
speech/language
irritability
aggression
mood swings
fatigue
uneven progress
what are some education considerations for children with a TBI
- assist child as they transition from hospital/home to school
- create a plan for cognitive, social, and sensorimotor domains as relevant
- teach strategies for sustaining attention, remembering previously learned skills, learning new things, dealing with fatigue, engaging in social behaviour
- transition programming for long term needs
what are some tips when working with students who have a TBI
be patient
maintain clear structure/routines
do not set specific expectations for achievement too early
be supportive and responsive to changing needs
each case of TBI will be very…
UNIQUE! need to design a plan of intervention considering the unique qualities of the individual
TBI prevention programs in schools
playground safety
school bus and vehicle safety
pedestrian safety
youth violence awareness and prevention safety
what is Intellectual Development Disability? (IDD)
significant limitation in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour
what is intellectual functioning (IDD)
intelligence- refers to general mental capacity; thinking, reasoning, problem solving, etc.
what adaptive behaviour (IDD)
conceptual skills (language/literacy)
social skills (social-responsibility, gullibility, following rules)
practical skills (daily living, occupational skills)
what was the previous name for IDD and when did it change
Mental Retardation, changed in 2007 by the American Association on Intellectual Developmental Disabilities
what is IDD stand for
Intellectual Developmental Disability
IDD is not…
a learning disability or slow learners
Defining IDD is…
difficult
what are professionals reluctant to apply the label of IDD?
- possible misdiagnosis
- stigma attached
- socially constructed condition
how do the supports range in IDD?
Intermittent (low level; as needed)
to
Pervasive (high level)
what are the 4 classifications of IDD?
- Mild (IQ approx. 50-70; low adaptive behaviour)
- Moderate (IQ approx. 35-50; very low adaptive behaviour)
- Severe (IQ approx. 20-35; significantly low adaptive behaviour)
- Profound (IQ approx. 20 and below; very limited/absence of adaptive behaviour)
what is the prevalence rate of IDD
approx. 1-2% of students in K-12 in canada
may be inaccurate due to hesitancy to diagnose
what are the 3 causes of IDD?
- prenatal (before birth)
- perinatal (at time of birth
- postnatal (after birth)
what percentage of IDD cases are caused by some type of genetic syndrome/disorder
50%
what are some prenatal causes
chromosomal, metabolic, developmental disorders affecting brain formation, environmental influences
what is the most common chromosomal type of IDD
Down Syndrome
what causes Down Syndrome
an anomaly at 21st pair of chromosomes (typically an extra in the 21st pair called trisomy 21)
what are some distinct factors of down syndrome
- eyes appear slanted, thick folds on corners of eyes
- small physical stature
- protruding tongue due to small oral cavity
- heart defects
- short broad hands with singular palmar crease
- poor muscular tone
what level of IDD do most cases of down sydrome fall under?
moderate
what are some potential risk factors for chance of having a child with down syndrome?
increases with mothers age
exposure to viruses in mother
age of father
exposure to radiation in both mom and dad
what are some examples of screening done to detect down syndrome in early stages of pregnancy?
- Maternal Serum Screening (blood test)
- Nuchal Translucency Sonogram (measures fluid behind the fetuses neck)
- Chronic Villus Sampling (sample of placenta is taken early on and tested for chromosomal abnormalities
- Amniocentesis (ample of amniotic fluid taken from sack around fetus and checked for chromosomal abnormalities; 1/100 risk)
what are some perinatal causes of IDD?
- Anoxia (complete loss of oxygen)
- Low Birth Weight (2.5kg or less = high risk)
- Sexually Transmitted Disease (infections such as syphilis or herpes)
what are some postnatal causes of IDD?
- TBI
- Meningitis
- Lead Ingestion
- Malnutrition
- Psychosocial (neglect/abuse)
what are some educational considerations for children with IDD
- functional age-appropriate curriculum
- teaching/promoting self determination skills
- transition planning
what are some specific instructional methods for children with IDD
functioning reading/math skills
systemic and explicit instruction
real-life settings/materials
buddy system (social modelling)
life skill groups
what is the only preventable exceptionality?
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
what is FASD caused by
effects to fetal brain by maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy
FASD is a…
continuum disorder
ranges from profound cognitive, behavioural, emotional, and social issues to mild intellectual and behavioural issues
what is the prevalence rate for children with FASD in Canada
approx. 0.1%
1.2 % for off-reserve indigenous children
what is the FASD continuum?
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (least severe)
- Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Alcohol Related Birth Defects
- Neurobehavioural Disorder associated with prenatal alcohol consumption (most severe)
what are the 5 areas of the brain effected by Maternal Alcohol Consumption?
- Basil Ganglia (motor/cognitive function)
- Corpus Calosum (attention, reading, memory)
- Cerebellum (balance/coordination)
- Hippocampus (storing memories)
- Frontal Cortex (reasoning, problem-solving)
what is the most clinically recognized form of FASD on the continuum?
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
what does a FAS diagnosis require?
- mothers acknowledgement of alcohol use
- growth below the 10th percentile
- specific head and facial abnormalities
- intelligence and adaptive behaviour deficits
what is the Lip Philtrum Guide
used within FAS diagnosis; looks at the smoothness of the philtrum and the thinness of the upper lip and measure on a scale of 1-5
what are some characteristics of the ear for a child with FAS
railroad track appearance
children with FASD tend to be…
naive, socially engaging, BUT do not learn from experience; difficulty with cause and effect thinking
person with FASD may experience difficulty in cause and effect thinking in…
understadning consequences
generalizing behaviour from one setting to another
predicting outcomes of different behaviours in new settings
working within a rigid and egocentric view of what is fair
what are some things that dont work within FASD
- physical punishment
- time-outs after child has ‘lost it’
- taking things away/bribes
- natural/logistic consequences
- contracts
- grounding
- moralizing
what are some effective strategies for children with FASD
- teaching using self-talk
- pair visual prompts with verbal cues and instructions
- use proximity
- provide headset to block out noise if student is easily distracted
- break assignments into small manageable parts
- use concrete reinforcement or reminders
define Emotional or Behavioural Disorders (E/BD)
behaviours or emotions that are extreme; chronic and interfere with normal functioning in all aspects of child’s life
what are some examples of E/BD disorders
anxiety disorders
mood disorders
disruptive disorders
oppositional defiance disorder
conduct disorder
define anxiety
subjective sense of worry, apprehension, fear, and distress
what are unhealthy levels of anxiety?
last for long periods of time (chronic) and affect functioning (qualify as a disorder)
what is anxiety that lasts for long periods of time qualified as?
chronic
what is anxiety that effects functioning qualified as?
a disorder
what are some non-physical impacts fo anxiety?
disrupts thinking, decision making ability, perceptions of the environment, learning and concentration
what percentage of children in Canada have a diagnosis of anxiety?
5.2%
what are physical manifestations of anxiety?
raised blood pressure and heart rate, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, ulcers, diarrhea, tingling in limbs, weakness, and shortness of breath
what are the 5 types of anxiety disorders?
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- Separation Anxiety Disorder
- Phobias
- Selective Mutism
- Panic Attacks
explain generalized anxiety disorder
engage in extreme, unrealistic worry about everyday life activities, hard to stop worrying once they start, experience physical discomforts that do not appear to have a physical cause
explain separation anxiety disorder
extreme difficulty leaving an attachment figure, cling/cry desperately upon departure, have trouble falling asleep/restless sleep, and refusal to do anything the requires separation
explain phobias
unrealistic and excessive fears of certain objects or situations; often center on:
animals, storms, water, heights or situations
restricts their lives
what is a social phobia?
significant fear of one or more social situations in which a child is exposed to unfamiliar persons or scrutiny by others; exposure to this situation causes significant anxiety or panic attack
explain panic attacks
sudden, discrete episodes of intense fear and/or discomfort accompanied by 4 out of 13 symptoms and intense feelings of wanting to escape and impending doom
what are 4 examples of the 13 symptoms of panic attacks
- heart palpitations
- sweating
- trembling
- shortness of breath
explain selective mutism
fully capable of speech and understanding language but unable to speak in certain situations; a severe form of progressive mutism
what are the 6 potential causes for anxiety disorder
- genetic
- biological
- psychological
- medical
- PTSD
- GAD
what are genetic causes of anxiety disorder
higher chance of anxiety disorder if anyone in immediate family has one
what are biological causes of anxiety disorder
evidence exists that supports the involvement of norepinephrine, serotonin, and GABA; a disregulation of neural systems
what are psychological causes of anxiety disorder
anxiety can result when combination of increased internal and external stressors overwhelm ones coping abilities
what are medical causes of anxiety disorder
illness such as cardiovascular disease, lung disease, endocrine disorders, infections, neurological disorders, can be an underlying source of an anxiety disorder
what are PTSD causes for anxiety
cased by the trauma but also linked to psychological coping skills already in existence
what are GAD causes for anxiety
theory suggest personality is involved; a person whose temperament is timid or negative, or who avoids anything dangerous, may be more prone to GAD
what are the 6 treatments options for anxiety disorder
- environmental
- cognitive behavioural
- relaxation techniques
- biofeedback
- psychotherapy
- medication treatments
what are environmental treatments for anxiety
avoidance of stimulants
avoid nasal decongestants/cough medications
good sleep habits
reduction od stressors
what are cognitive behavioural treatments for anxiety
learn to deal with dears by modifying the way we think and behave (guided imagery)
what are relaxation technique treatments for anxiety
deep breathing, meditation, music
what are biofeedback treatments for anxiety
connected to electrical sensors that help you learn to read feedback of your body signals
what is psychotherapy treatments for anxiety
talk or play or write through fears/worries with a therapist
what are 2 medication treatments for anxiety
Benzodiazepines (ativan)
Sertonergic Agents (antidepressants)
define Oppositional Defiant Disorder
a persistent pattern of angry or irritable mood/argumentative/defiant behaviour and/or vindictiveness toward others (no direct violation of the rights or safety of others)
behaviours must be… to be diagnosed with ODD
inappropriate for age and developmental stage
symptoms of ODD are more evident in…
interactions child has with adults or peers they know well and are confortable with
what age is ODD typically diagnosed?
age 8
what role does puberty play in the prevalence rate of ODD in males and females
more males are diagnosed pre-puberty and an equal rate of M:F after puberty
what percentage of school aged populations in Canada are diagnosed with ODD
3.5%
what are some characteristics of a child with ODD
often loses temper
often argues with adults
actively defies or refuses adult requests/rules
deliberately annoys others
blames others for mistakes/problems
easily annoyed by others
In ODD, social function is often…
impaired; depends on severity of symptoms and how much class time they have missed du to behavioural problems
what are the causes of ODD
exact causes unknown; believed to be a interplay between genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors
what are some potential causes for ODD
heritability
childhood maltreatment
temperamental factors
peer rejection
what are the 6 treatment options for ODD
- parent training programs
- individual psychotherapy
- family psychotherapy
- cognitive behavioural therapy
- social skills training
- medication
what are parent training programs effective for in ODD
helps to manage the child’s behaviour
what is individual psychotherapy effective for in ODD
anger mangement
what is family psychotherapy effective for in ODD
improves communication
what is cognitive behavioural therapy effective for in ODD
assist with problem solving and decrease negativity
what is social skills training effective for in ODD
to increase flexibility and improve frustration tolerance with peers
what is medication effective for in ODD
it is not effective for most with ODD!
what is not an effective educational strategy with ODD and why
Traditional Positive Reinforcement
their primary response system is public opposition, therefore reinforcing in front of a group for good behaviour may fuel misbehaviour
What is an effective educational strategy with ODD
Indirect Reinforcement
whispering
notes
what are the 5 components of the Teacher Response Key when dealing with students with ODD
- take personal time-out
- pick your battles
- no not engage in argument
- provide choices
- set up reasonable consequences that can be enforced consistently
define Conduct Disorder
persistent pattern of antisocial behaviour; significantly impairs everyday function at home/school
what are antisocial behaviours?
aggressive acts (physical violence, use of a weapon, cruelty to people/animals, forcing sexual acts)
acts committed by individuals with CD are…
committed across a wide rand of situations and demonstrated over long periods of time
what are the 3 types of CD
- Under-socialized
- Socialized
- Versatile
explain under-socialized CD
characterized by OVERT ACTS
teasing, yelling, verbal aggression, threatening, attacking, loudness, extreme disobedience
explain socialized CD
characterized by COVERT ACTS
lying, secret destructiveness, stealing, fire setting, gang affiliations, abuse of alcohol/drugs
explain versatile CD
show both overt and covert forms of antisocial conduct; cant switch back and forth
girls with CD are more likely to…
lie, skip school, run away, use substances; show more relational aggression
boys with CD are more likely to…
fight, steal, vandalize, and have disciplinary problems at school; show physical agressions and aggression in relationships
what are the 4 theories of causes of CD
- Biological Factors (brain differences in frontal lobe)
- Social Factors (poor social skills)
- School Factors (dont fit in/struggle with expectations)
- Familial/Environmental Factors (family history/circumstances/modeling)
Treatment with CD is a… and contains…
a multi-component approach
contains:
medication
behaviour therapy
cognitive behaviour therapy
what do you need to remain as with education interventions of a student with CD
Proactive and Instructive
What do children with CD typically respond well to?
Positive Reinforcement
Punishment for students with CD must…
only be for serious issues; administered in a matter-of-fact way
Punishment for students with CD must be…
fair, consistent, and immediate
what are the 4 classifications of Autism Spectrum Disorder according to the DSM-5
- ASD with or without a intellectual impairment
- ASD with or without a language impairment
- ASD associated with a known medical or genetic condition
- ASD associated with another neuro developmental disorder or with catatonia
what is catatonia
lack of reaction to surroundings
What is the severity of ASD based on
social communication impairments and restricted repetitive patterns of behaviour
how is ASD rated
levels 1, 2, and 3
explain level 1 ASD
least severe; mild
struggles with social situations
has some repetitive behaviours
struggle maintaining a conversation and making/keeping friends
prefer to stick to established routines
often want to do things their own way
explain level 2 ASD
noticeable difficulty with social skills
can communicate verbally yet conversations may be very short or focused on specific topics
need support to participate in social activities
may not look at someone who is talking to them
do not express emotions through tone of voice or facial expressions
may have routines or habits they feel necessary, become very uncomfortable when disrupted
explain level 3 ASD
most severe
significant difficulties with social communication skills
many restrictive or repetitive behaviours that interfere with everyday functioning
do not communicate verbally or use very few words
struggle with unexpected events
overly or underly sensitive to sensory input
what percentage of diagnosed cases of ASD in Canada
2.2%
what is the gender difference in ASD diagnosis
more boys than girls 3:1
what are some examples of social communication behaviours within ASD
talk at length about a favourite subject without noticing that others are not interested
facial expressions, movements, or gestures do not match that is being said
unusual tone of voice
having trouble understanding another persons pov
unable to predict others actions
what are some examples of restrictive/repetitive behaviours within ASD
repeating words/phrases
lasting and intense interest in specific topic
get upset by changes in routine
being more or less sensitive than others to sensory input
what was Dr A Wakefield
a doctor who published work in the 1990’s demonstrating findings of the MMR vaccine to cause ASD; no truth or scientific validity in his findings but caused panic and resulted in an outbreak of many diseases
What is Refrigerator Mother Syndrome
belief that cold/unresponsive mothers caused ASD in their children; was supported by Bettleheim in the 60s
what was believed to be a cause of ASD in the 50s
heredity; no support to this theory
what is the present widely accepted cause of ASD
neurological differences; demonstrated in brain scanning tech
Has an single cause been proven for ASD
no!
what was a specific brain difference that was noted regarding children with ASD
the brains/heads of individuals with ASD are larger than normal
brain size is average at birth, but goes through a sudden growth spurt over the first 2 years of their life which results in a larger head circumference
brain growth then slows to its max at ages 4-5
what are the 7 brain structures associated with ASD
- cerebral cortex
- amygdala
- basal ganglia
- hippocampus
- cerebellum
- corpus callosum
- brain stem
how is ASD diagnosed
made up by medical doctor, psychiatrist, psychologist, or neurologist based upon various behaviour/language/cognitive indicators
(DSM-5 criteria)
what level of ASD is easier to diagnose
level 3
due to severe behaviours/cognitive/social communication delay
what is an autistic savant
a person with level 3 traits of ASD who also has 1 advanced skill in a particular area (splinter skill)
what is a major area of concern in students with ASD
social skills
what does the Hidden Curriculum cover
dos and donts of social interactions
how is the Hidden Curriculum directly taught
on a situational basis or taught proactively
directly discusses a hidden curriculum topic each day then give strategies on ways to response/react
uses social stories (can use images/cartoons)
what does the support depend on for students with hearing impairments/deafness
the amount of hearing the student has
how is education served for individuals with hearing impairments/deafness
with regular classroom settings with varied supports
what are 4 types of supports within the classroom for students with hearing impairments/deafness
- Itinerant teachers
- Sign language interpreter
- Learn to read facial expressions and lips
- Learn manual methods (symbols for words)
what does APSEA stand for
Atlantic Provinces Special Education Authority
what is APSEA
multi-provincial service that all maritime students who have visual or auditory impairments can access
what are some general best practices for students with hearing impairments
proper lighting
reduce background noise
do not talk louder
use visual supports
use technology
how is blindness legally defined
visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the best eye
(a person sees at 20ft what a person usually sees at 200ft)
OR
a person whose field of vision is so narrow that the widest diameter they can see is 20 degrees of less
how is visual acuity measured
the Shellen Chart (person is tested at 20ft distance)
how is visual impairment defined
acuity between 20/70 and 20/200 in their best eye within correction
what are 4 causes of visual impairment
- errors of refraction (bending of light rays)
- myopia (near sighted)
- hyperopia (far sighted)
- astigmatism (blurred vision)
what are the 4 hereditary/disease factors for visual impairments
- Glaucoma (optic nerve disease)
- Cataracts (clouding of lens of eye)
- Diabetic Retinopathy (bloody supply impacted)
- Retintis Pigmentosa (narrowed field of vision)
- Retinopathy of Prematurity (abnormal blood vessel growth from excessive oxygen given to premature infants)
students who are blind or who have visual impairments may be delayed in…
language development
what are some educational considerations for students who are blind or who have visual impairments
use large print
use audio materials
use high contrast material
verbal instructions at all times
what are some signs of potential visual problems with students
one eye turning in or out
constant rubbing, squinting, covering one eye
fearful of walking downstairs
headaches
what is one of the biggest challenges for students with MD
fatigue
