Examine the reasons for the failure of the 1848 Revolutions?

Question 1

Argument

Answer 1

Depends on Name factor

FI

Lack of National Leadership and Aims

Lack of popular support

Question 2

Foreign Influence

Answer 2

Riall Lucy

Piedmont defeated at Novara in March 1849
• 4,000 killed and wounded compared to 700 Austrians
• Following treaty (Peace of Milan) meant further setbacks in unification

1848 Piedmont’s army – 100,000 vs Austrian army – 400,000

The Austrian army had the Lorenz Rifle – range of up to 800 metres.

Piedmontese – smoothbore Muskets à Shorter range

Piedmontese troops trained for 3 years vs 6 years Austria

Question 3

Criticisms of Foreign Influence

Answer 3

• However, the extent to which Austrian and French influence crushed the revolutions has been argued as being underpinned by the ineptitude of the Piedmontese army and political disunity among the revolutionaries.
• Thus while, this argument appears convincing, it must take into account that the strength of the foreign armies may be exaggerated given the extent of incompetent opposition.
• Nonetheless, without intervention, the revolutions would have persisted and thus must be regarded as the mos signicant factor as it disrupted and destroyed the revolutionary movements in 1848-49

Question 4

Disunity and division among Popular Support

Answer 4

Duggan “a lack of coherence and coordination”

• Most Italians did not share the desire of Piedmont’s military and aristocracy for dynastic expansion, and there was insufficient military power and diplomatic influence to gain control of Lombardy.
• The Mazzinians were admired by some for their heroic defence of Rome, yet many others were appalled by these ‘extreme republicans’, who reminded them of the terrors of the French Revolution. Rome and Venice remained isolated centres of resistance.
• Many northern liberal Italians saw the Sicilian revolt as simply an expression of the island’s restlessness and desire for independence.

Question 5

Criticisms of Disunity and division among Popular support

Answer 5

However, despite differences, there were successes in sections of Italy

o Alberto saw plebiscite in Lombardy vote for annexation by Piedmont

o Roman Republic set up

• In October 1848, a nationalist government was elected in Tuscany that was ready to support an Italian parliament in resisting Austrian rule.
• The grand duke fled and on 15 November 1848 the pope’s minister, Rossi, was murdered during an uprising in Rome. The pope also fled the city, and the revolutionaries declared a Roman republic

Answer 6

This argument cites both the role of Carlos Alberto and Giuseppe Mazzini.

Well argues that strong ledership by Piedmont might have resulted in Austria’s defeat and the creation of some unity in the force, however, Carlo Alberto was ‘no Napoleon’ poor leadership -> failure of revolution

o Supported by Beales and Riall, who agree that Alberto’s ‘indecisiveness’ during 1848-49 led to the defeat of the Piedmontese army

 Allowed Radetzky (leader of Austrian army) to retreat into famous ‘Quadrilateral’ where he could assemble reinforcements – Carlo was collecting votes for a plebiscite fusing Lombardy + Venetia with Piedmont.

• This indecisiveness ultimately allowed Austria to regain strength and assert their military dominance at Novara in 1849

o Thus, weakness of Carlo underpins foreign influence

• Mazzini too radical as a leader
  o Supported by Bosworth: Mazzini’s radicalism was too much for most Italians

 Ideology included refusing to work with foreign powers as he wanted revolution to be from Italians only

 Garibaldi disagreed with Mazzini but ultimately no foreign support was attained

• Led to defeat of Roman Republic as the Republic lacked military power and resources to fight against France

 Also meant that revolutionary forces were divided and not unified as they disagreed on methods of revolution

• Notably, moderate radicals disagreed with Mazzini’s methods, preferring to work within the existing political system

Question 7

Criticisms of Leadership

Answer 7

Nevertheless, despite Mazzini’s failure, he did set up a Roman Republic in Papal states, which was only destroyed through strong foreign influence – suggests foreign influence was most significant as without it, Roman Republic would have survived.

Moreover, were it not for Austria’s involvement in the revolution, Piedmont would no have been defeated and the Peace of Milan would not have been conceded