EXAM SEMESTER 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Main Personality Theories and Theorists
A
PSYCHODYNAMIC; Freud
TRAIT; Allport, Eysenck
HUMANISTIC; Maslow, Rodgers
BEHAVIOURAL: Skinne
2
Q
Psychodynamic Perspective
A
Personality is a result of unconscious psychological conflicts and how effectively these are resolved
3
Q
FREUD Conscious Level
A
- tip of the ice berg
- is everything we are thinking, remembering, feeling, sensing or are aware of at this particular moment
4
Q
FREUD Preconscious Level
A
- Just below the surface
- Contains information which we often say is at the back of our mind and can be brought to the surface simply by thinking about it
5
Q
FREUD Unconscious Level
A
- deep below the surface
- we are not aware of unconscious thoughts but they still have an influence of our conscious thoughts and feelins
- storage place for information about ourselves, deem unacceptable
- holds unacceptable thoughts, feelings, experiences, images, impulses, motices, ideas and they are buried
6
Q
ID
A
- Described as a force which is demanding, impulsive, irrational and an extremely selfish part of our personality
- Operates on the PLEASURE PRINCIPLE it must have its needs met
7
Q
EGO
A
- Develops when children begin to understand more about how the real world works, part of personality that is realistic, logical or orderly
- Operates on the REALITY PRINICPLE, ensure needs of ID is met in a socially acceptable and appropriate manner/time/way
8
Q
SUPEREGO
A
- Conscious always looking out for us
- Judging our thoughts, feelings and actions based on morals/values
- Operates on MORAL PRINCIPLE, providing us with ideas of right and wrong
9
Q
CONSCIOUS
A
- Current thoguhts/feelings
- Current sensations/perceptions
10
Q
PRECONSCIOUS
A
- Yesterdays experiences
- Last weeks feelings/ideas
11
Q
UNCONSCIOUS
A
- Traumatic event
- Embarrassing fears
- Emotionally harmful thoughts
- Impulses
- Unacceptable feelings
- Unfilled bad desires
12
Q
FREUDS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
THE ORAL STAGE
A
BIRTH - 12 MONTHS
- Centre of pleasure: mouth
- Conflict to resolve: Weaning
- Fixation behaviours: talking too much, overeating, gossip, drinking excessively, smoking and desperate dependence on others
13
Q
FREUDS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
THE ANAL STAGE
A
1 - 2 YEARS
- Centre of pleasure: bowel movement
- Conflict to resolve: toilet training
- Fixation behaviours: stingy, extremely organised, stubborn, concerned with control, cleanliness, orderliness, details, sloppy, disorganised, impulsive
14
Q
FREUDS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
THE PHALLIC STAGE
A
3 - 5 YEARS
- Centre of please: genitals
- Conflict to resolve: physical desire for opposite sex parent
- Boys desire their mothers, eliminate father
- Hostile fantasies about doing away with their father, create a fear of retaliation from the father that is called CASTRATION ANXIETY
- As a result, the child represses these desires and identifies with the father in order to possess the mother vicariously
15
Q
FREUDS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
THE LATENT STAGE
A
6 - PUBERTY
- Sexual impulses lie doormat and the child focuses on education and matters like social skills and achievements
- Purpose of stage is to consolidate the child’s same sex identity
16
Q
FREUDS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
THE GENITAL STAGE
A
PUBERTY - ADULTHOOD
- Centre of pleasure: Genitals
- Conflict to resolve: to direct ones sexual urges towards appropriate attachment figures
- with development of sexual maturity, all of the child’s prename fixations re-emerge
- Also stage during which the child detaches him/her from the family, develops his or her identity and must redirect his or her attachment towards peer love interests
17
Q
PSYCHODYNAMIC STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (FREUD)
A
ORAL ANAL PHALLIC LATENT GENTIAL
18
Q
BASIS OF PSYCHODYNAMIC
A
- Our behaviour and feelings are powerful affected by unconscious mind
- Our behaviour and feelings as adults (inc. psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences
- All behaviour has a course (usually unconscious) even slips of the tongue
- Personality is made up of 3 parts (TRIPARTIDE)
- Behaviour is motivated by 2 instinct and drives; ERO ( self drive and life instinct) and THANTOS (aggressive drive and death instinct) from the ID
- Parts of the unconscious mind (id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious mind (ego)
- Conflict creates anxiety, which could be dealt with by the egos use of defence mechanisms
- Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by different conflicts are different times of the childhood (during psychosexual development)
19
Q
EVALUATION STRENGTHS OF FREUDS THEORY
A
- Made the case study method popular in psychology
- Defence mechanisms
- Highlighted importance of childhood
- His views have influences almost every aspect of modern western though in and outside of psychology
20
Q
EVALUATION WEAKNESSES OF FREUDS THEORY
A
- Case studies: subjective/can’t generalise findings
- Unscientific (lacks empirical support)
- Too deterministic (little free will)
- Biased sample (ie. middle age from vienna)
- Socially unacceptable parts of theory (sexualisation of children)
21
Q
DEFENCE MECHANISMS
A
- Mental manoeuvre that one consciously or unconsciously chooses to use to distort of falsify the truth of ones experiences in order to protect ones self from feeling painful emotions like shame, guilt, anxiety
22
Q
TRAIT THEORY GORDON ALLPORT
A
- A trait theorist is a psychologist in classifying, analysing and interrelating traits to understand personality
- States that everyone has personality trains that are consistent with the person’s individuality and behaviour. Allport concluded that every human being possess hundreds of traits which can be organises into 3 categories
- Central, cardinal, secondary
23
Q
EYSENCK 2D/3D MODEL
A
- Believes everyone sits at one part of these models
- psychoticism (high/low impulse control)
- introvert/extrovert
- stable/unstable
24
Q
EXTROVERTED
A
- Outgoing, embraces the world, responsive to social and physical stimulation
- Insensitive to stimulation (stimulation hungry)
- Sociable, outgoing, interactive, expressive, sensation seeking, acts first, thinks after and dislikes being alone
25
Q
INTROVERTED
A
- Hesitant, reflective, withdrawn from social and physical stimulation
- Sensitive to stimulation (stimulation shy)
- Private, reclusive, reserved, quiet, inward, sensitive, thinks before acting and exhausted by groups
26
Q
HIGH DEGREE OF NEUROTICISM
A
- More emotionally reactive
- Eg. moody, tense, anxious or irritable
27
Q
HIGH DEGREE OF STABILITY/NORMALITY
A
- Less emotionally reactive (but still have emotions)
28
Q
EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORY
STRENGTHS
A
- later search is carried out on 1000s of people and supported by Eysenck
29
Q
EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORY
WEAKNESSES
A
- original research used a limited sample of people to test his ideas
- only described a limited number of personality types
- questionnaires can be present research with a number of problems (e.g. mood can effect answers)
- people may not be 100% truthful in their answers in self reports when answering
30
Q
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
A
- Self awareness is at the core of humanity
- The Pursuit of Self Fulfilment and ethical conduct
- People are free to do as they choose with their lives, and as such are responsible for the decisions they make
- Very different approach from the behaviourists, much more optimistic
31
Q
CARL RODGERS (1902-1987)
A
- Human ability to device self concepts; the self as an individual, ones value and relationship with others
- People are the conscious architects of their own personality through free choice/action (self theory)
32
Q
SELF THEORY
A
- CONGRUENCE: consistency between self-concept and ones experiences
- SELF ESTEEM: definitely needed: a belief in ones self/self respect
- Human nature is optimistic
- PERSONS CENTRES THEORY: get in touch with you genuine feelings and act on them
33
Q
BENEFITS OF SELF THEORY
A
CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE: a sense of moving through space and time; needed to be human
34
Q
LIMITS OF SELF THEORY
A
- Conscious experience is private and subjective
- Doesn’t predict what traits, abilities, interests we will developed
35
Q
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
A
- relates to our learned patterns of behaviours
- Behaviourists believe that our personality stems from behaviours we learn throughout our lives
- Skinner believed that our behaviour that brings rewards or avoids punishments is continued
36
Q
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
A
- Something desirable is obtained to make behaviour happen again
- To behave in the same way in order to receive reward
37
Q
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
A
- A response or behaviour is strengthened by stopping or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus
- removal of something unpleasant
38
Q
PUNISHMENT
A
- Something undesirable is received after a behaviour to make it stop
- Used in an attempt to decrease behaviour
39
Q
SKINNER ET AL
A
- Believed that ALL behaviour can be UNLEARNT and so we have no lasting personality characteristic
40
Q
BEHAVIOURIST LIMITATIONS
A
- Behaviourist theorists about personality have been criticised for being too simplistic (people aren’t robots)
- Most psychologists today believe that personality is more stable than the learning theories would suggest
41
Q
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY
A
- self report
- observer report
- test data
- life history data
42
Q
SELF REPORT
A
ADVANTAGES
- allows study of difficult to observe behaviours, thoughts, feelings
- easy to distribute to large groups
DISADVANTAGES
- Responses may not me representative (convenience sampling is tempting)
- Responses may be biased and untruthful
43
Q
OBSERVER EFFECT
A
ADVANTAGES - Capture spontaneous behaviours - Avoid bias of self reports DISADVANTAGES - researcher interference (how naturalistic it is) - Variety of some behaviours - Observer bias - Selective attention - Time consuming
44
Q
TEST DATA
A
ADVANTAGES - Quantitate Data = easy to replicate - Controlled environment DISADVANTAGES - Lacks ecological validity
45
Q
LIFE HISTORY DATA
A
ADVANTAGES - Ecological validity - Establish links to past experiences DISADVANTAGES - Expensive - Time consuming - Hard to replicate - Hard to collect meaningful data - Can not relate to a whole population
46
Q
ATTACHMENT THEORISTS
A
Bowlby
Ainsworth
Harlow
47
Q
ATTACHMENT
A
- A deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across rime and space
48
Q
BOWLBY THEORY
A
- Viewed infants attachment to a caregiver as a mechanism that evolved to protect infants from predators
- 1958, Bowlby considered the impact of the child’s relationship with their mother in terms of their social, emotional, cognitive development
- Looked at link between early infant separations with the mother and maladjustment
49
Q
ATTACHMENT THEORY
A
- Attachment doesn’t have to be reciprocal, one person may have an attachment with an individual which isn’t shared
- Attachment behaviour in adults towards their children induces responding sensitively and appropriately to the child’s needs, such behaviour is universal across cultures
50
Q
AINSWORTH AND BELL (1970)
A
- controlled observation of children’s attachment behaviours using the “strange situation”
1. Mother leaves child in unfamiliar environment
2. Child is approached by stranger
3. Mother returns
4. Looks at separation protest, stranger anxiety and reunion behaviour
51
Q
THREE PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT
A
- secure (70%)
- insecure avoidant (15%)
- insecure resistant (15%)
52
Q
ATTACHMENT THEORY
SECURE ATTACHMENT
A
- Distressed when mother left
- Positive and happy when mum returned
- Avoidant of stranger when alone but friendly when mother is present
- Will use mother as a safe base to explore environment
- Associated with sensitive and responsive primary care
53
Q
ATTACHMENT THEORY
AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
A
- No sign of distress by mother’s absence
- Showed little interest when she returned
- Infant okay with stranger and plays normally when stranger is present
- Mother and stranger are able to comfort infant equally
- Mother tends to be insensitive or not be interested in child
- Research has suggested that this type of style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers
54
Q
ATTACHMENT THEORY
RESISTANT ATTACHMENT
A
- Intensely distressed when mother left
- Apparent fear of stranger - and avoids stranger
- Clinginess mixed with rejection on return may approach the mother but may resist contact
- Fear of exploration
- Research suggests that ambivalent attachment is a result of poor maternal availability. These children cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the child is in need
55
Q
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
A
- Gradual development of an individual’s concept of right and wrong - conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behaviour
56
Q
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1 PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY 0-9 YEARS
STAGE 1 - OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT
A
- Common in young children
- Adults also capable of expressing this reasoning
- Children see rules as fixed and absolute
- Obeys rules to avoid punishment
- Determines sense of right and wrong by what is punished/not punished
- Obeys superior authority and allows authority to make rules especially if authority has power to inflict pain
- Responsive to rules that will affect physical well being
57
Q
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1 - PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY 0-9 YEARS
STAGE 2 - NAIVELY EGOTISICAL
A
- Children account for individual point of view and judge actions based on how they serve individuals needs
- Reciprocity is possible only if it serves own interests
- Motivated by vengeance ‘eye for eye’
- Self absorbed while assuming that she/he is generous
- Believes in equal sharing, that everyone gets the same in regards to needs
- Will do a favour to get a favour
- Expects rewards for every non-selfish deed done
58
Q
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 2 - CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 10-15 YEARS
STAGE 3 - ‘GOOD BOY GOOD GIRL’ ORIENTATION
A
- Focused on lining up to social expectations and roles
- Emphasis on conformity, being ‘nice’ and consideration of how choices influence relationships
- Finds approval very important
- Feels that intentions are as important as deeds and expect others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds
- Begin to put themselves in others does/think from perspective
59
Q
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 2 - CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 10-15 YEARS
STAGE 4 - LAW AND SOCIAL ORDER
A
- People begin to consider society as a whole when making judgements
- Focus on maintaining law and order by following rules doing ones duty and respecting authority
- Is a duty does - believes in rigid rule that shouldn’t be changed
- Respects authority and obeys without questions
- Supports rights of majority without concern for minority
- 80% of the population doesn’t progress past this stage
60
Q
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 3 - POST CONVENTIONAL MORAILTY 16+ YEARS
STAGE 5 - LEGALISTIC SOCIAL CONTRACT
A
- People begin to account of differing values, opinions and beliefs of others
- Rules of law are important for maintaining society, but memebers of society should agree upon these standards
- Motivated by belief; greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people
- Believes in consensus, rather than majority rule
- Respects rights of the minority especially rights of the individual
- Believes that change in laws is possible only through the system
61
Q
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 3 - POST CONVENTIONAL MORAILTY 16+ YEARS
STAGE 6 - UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
A
- Based upon universal ethical principles and abstract meaning
- People follow these internalised principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules
- Believes that there are high moral principles that those represented by social values and customs
- Believes that dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value
62
Q
CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
A
- Does moral reasoning lead to moral behaviours? The theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do, versus our actual actions
- Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed our the theory overemphasizes the concept the concept of justice when making moral choices, other factors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning
- Does the theory overemphasise wester philsophy? Individualistic outcomes emphasize personal rights, where collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that the theory doesn’t account for
63
Q
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
A
- Way in which we attach meaning to others behaviour or our own
E.g. Is someone angry because they have a bad temper or has something happend to them?
64
Q
FRISKEE & TAYLOR (1991)
ATTRIBUTION
A
- Attribution theory details with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at casual explanation’s for events
- It examines what information is gathered and how it is compared to form a casual judgement
- Attribution theory is concerned with how and why ordinary people explain events as they do
65
Q
HEIDER (1958)
A
- Believe people are naive psychologists trying to make sense of the social/world
- People tend to see cause and effect relationships even where there is none
66
Q
MAIN IDEAS
ATTRIBUTION
A
- When we explain the behaviours of others we look for enduring internal attributions such as personality traits
- For example. we attribute the behaviour of a person to their naivety or reliablity or jealousy
67
Q
OURSELVES
ATTRIBUTION
A
- When we try to explain our own behaviour, we tend to make external attributions such as situational or environment
68
Q
EMOTIONS
A
- Feelings aroused by events that relevant to us
69
Q
MARKUS AND KITAYAMA
EMOTION
A
- Believed that our emotions are divided into TWO groups
- Those that relate of self; pride, frustration, anger
- Those that relate to others; sympathy, digust, pity
70
Q
MARKUS AND KITAYAMA SELF CONSTRUCTUAL
EMOTION
A
- Individualist culture have a representation called INDEPENDENT SELF CONSTRUAL
- Collectivist concept of self entails characteristics and quantities of the social environment called an INTERDEPENDENT SELF CONSTRUAL
71
Q
BRIGGS (1970)
EMOTION
A
- Briggs reported that Inuits never feel anger due to conflict with their own moral code
- Their culture consider outsiders who show anger as childish
72
Q
HONOUR AND GUILT
EMOTION
A
- individualistic cultures experience guilt do to conflict with their own moral code
- collectivist cultures experience guilt due to when their actions effect their family or community
73
Q
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATOR/SOURCE
A
- More effective if they are an expert
- Trust worthiness (motives and beliefs)
- Likeability (attractiveness, charm, race)
74
Q
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION
A
- Easy to understand
- Fast read
- Use of emotion
- Engaging
- Fair argument
75
Q
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
KNOW THE AUDIENCE
A
- Level of educational intelligence
- Resistance to persuasive/strength/beliefs
- Levels of participation
76
Q
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
A
- Speaking and listening
77
Q
ACTIVE LISTENING
A
- Occurs when the listener attends to the speaker fully, tries to understand what is important for the speaker and asks questions when they don’t understand
78
Q
ROBINSON (1970)
VERBAL COMMUNICATION/ACTIVE LISTENING
A
- Kids under 6 tend to blame the listener when the message is ambiguous
- Older children tend to blame the speaker
79
Q
RECHIMANN AND REILBLING (2000)
VERBAL COMMUNICATION/ACTIVE LISTENING
A
- Repetition has been found to positiviely influence communication
80
Q
TANNEN (1990)
REPORT TALK (MEN)
VERBAL COMMUNICATION/ACTIVE LISTENING
A
- Men can be more comfortable ‘reporting’ to a group of strangers, and this can include incorporating humour, anecdote and story telling impromptu
81
Q
TANNEN (199)
RAPPORT WOMEN
VERBAL COMMUNICATION/ACTIVE LISTENING
A
- Can help a formal speaker connect with her audience by emphasizing good will and ‘sameness’ in a disparate gathering
82
Q
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
A
- Involves facial expression, hand gestures, body language
- Facial expressions are universal
83
Q
HALBERSTADT (1991)
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
A
- The use of gestures can be affected by our socialisation as children
84
Q
HALL (1966)
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
A
- Outlined the four levels of interpersonal space or ‘distance zones’ (intimate personal, social distance and public distance zone)
85
Q
P VALUE
A
- If the results of the test are believed to have a ‘p value’ of less than 0.05 they are 95% confident that what has happened is not due to chance and so te null hypothesis can be rejected
86
Q
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
A
- Variables in an experience (other than IV) might cause an unwanted affect on the dependent variable can go unnoticed by the researcher
- When extraneous variables if found to effect the results it is then called a confounding variables
87
Q
TYPES OF EFFECTS
A
Order effects
Placebo effects
Experimenter effects
Participant effects
88
Q
ORDER EFFECT
A
- Result from the participant being involved in more than one experimental group
OVERCOME - increasing time between different conditions
- counterbalancing (half does second part first)
89
Q
PARTICIPANT EFFECTS
A
- Are the individual different found within the pariticipant themselves
- Linked to: ethnicity, cultural beliefs, gender, literacy or spoken language
OVERCOME - try to sample a broad variety of people or a very specific type of person
90
Q
EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS
A
- Refers to the experimenter unintentionally influencing the results of an experimenter
- Done through suggestive or leading questions, but also due to forced expectations influencing people/self fulfilling prophecies
OVERCOME - double blind test; both the participants and the researcher don’t know which experimental condition don’t know which experimental condition they are under
91
Q
SOCIAL FACILITATION
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- is the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks when in the presence of other people
- this implies that whenever people are being watched by others, they will do well on things that they are already good at doing
92
Q
SOCIAL INHIBITION
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- Restrain on person’s feelings and expressions in the belief that others may disapprove of their behaviour
93
Q
DEINDIVIDUATION
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- Loss of social identity and inhibition causing a person to lose responsbility for their own actions and causing them to ignore possible consequences
- People in a crowd gain anonymity sans so might shout at an umpire or start a food fight (CROWD DRUNK)
- ZIMBARDO EXPERIMENT
94
Q
FACTORS THAT LEAD TO DEINDIVIUATION
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
ANONYMITY: people are not afraid of the consequences INCREASED AWARENESS (PRESSURE OF SOCIAL NORMS): as people are surrounded they may feel more pressure to form to the social norms around hem SHIFT OF ATTENTION TO EXTERNAL FACTORS: people may be reacting to their environment more than their internal beliefs
95
Q
SOCIAL LOAFING
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- deindividuation can lead to this
- When a person puts in less effort due to the feeling of anonymity in a group
- LATANE ET AL
96
Q
SUCKER EFFECT
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- When it seems that others are not pulling their weight - people reduce effort
97
Q
FREE RIDER EFFECT
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- When it seem that everyone else is putting in enough work and so somebody doesn’t contribute
98
Q
COMPETITION
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- Within group lowers group cohesion
- Between groups increases group solidarity; also leads to intergroup hostility
99
Q
REALISTIC CONFLICT THEORY
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- Intergroup hostility arises when there is competition for scarce but valuable resources
100
Q
THEORY OF RELATIVE DEPRIVATION
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A
- Even if resources aren’t scarce people compare what they have to what others have and want the same
101
Q
ATTITUDES ‘FORMATION AND CHANGE’
A
- Viewed as ideas that we hold about ourselves, others, objects and experiences
- Is an evaluation of a person makes about an object, person, event or issue
102
Q
ABC’S OF ATTITUDE
AFFECTIVE COMPONENT
A
- Emotional reaction or feelings of an individual has towards and object, person, event or issue
- Based on a judgement which results in a positive or negative response, or a neutral one
AFFECTIVE = EMOTIONS
103
Q
ABC’S OF ATTITUDE
BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT
A
- The way in which an attitude is expressed through our action (or how we might behave should the opportunity arise)
- BEHAVIOUR = ACTIONS
104
Q
ABC’S OF ATTITUDE
COGNITIVE COMPONENTS
A
- The beliefs we have about our objects, person, groups, events and issues
- Beliefs linked to what we know about the world
- Develop as a result of our experience throughout the course of out lives
- Some factorial, some fans, some verifiable, some not
COGNITIVE = THOUGHTS
105
Q
PREJUDICE
A
- An attitude, usually negative towards a group of people., based on characteristics that are assumed to be common to all member of the group e.g. all girls like pink
106
Q
DISCRIMINATION
A
- Treating people unfavourably on the basis of their membership to a particular group e.g. mass genocide of the jews
107
Q
ADORNO - AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
A
- Prejudice happens because of a person’s personality
- Certain personality types can lead to a person becoming prejudiced
108
Q
AUTHOTITARIAN PERSONALITY
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
A
- Negative towards those beneath them, obedient towards those of higher status
- Rigid in their opinions
- Not willing to accept any new ideas to new situations
- C: characteristics make those who have them likely to categorise people into ‘us’ and ‘them’ groups, seeing ‘us’ group as superior
- Were more likely to have had a strict upbringing
109
Q
EVALUTAION AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
A
- not all prejudice people had harsh upbringings
- Only some prejudiced people show authoritarian personalities
- Found only a correlation between authoritarian personality and upbringing
- Doesn’t explain why people are prejudice
110
Q
STEREOTYPING
A
- involved having a belief about a certain group of individuals and assuming that every member of that group is the same
111
Q
POSITIVE DISCRIMINATION
A
- Often used as a tool to rebalance discrimination e.g. setting up racial quotas in workplaces
112
Q
TWIN STUDIES
A
Monozygotic = identical Dizygotic = non-identical DISADVANTAGE - adopted twins raised in similar environment's as adoption agencies tend adopt children out to similar target audience ADVANTAGE - different homes, similar habits
113
Q
TWIN STUDIES STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSED
A
- critics feel that nothing more than coincidence
- argue people of similar age would exhibit many surprising similarities
- studies fail to examine the many ways in which the twins differ
- Measurable traits such as personality and intelligence tend to run within genetics
114
Q
DETERMINISM
A
- a deterministic view is one that describes behaviour as not being under control of the person
- No chance in how you act of why you behave in a certain way
115
Q
REDUCTIONISM
A
- The belief that human behaviour can be explained by a because i.e. simple explanations
116
Q
MULLER-LYER ILLUSION
A
- illusion has become of the subject of considerable interest and different theories have emerged to explain the phenomenon
- by looking at how we perceive these illusions, we can learn more about how the brain and perceptual process work
- however, experts do not always agree on exactly what causes optical illusions
- According to psychologist Richard Gregory, this illusion occurs because of a misapplication of size constancy scaling
- Size constancy allows us to perceive objects in a stable way by taking distance into account
- In the 3D world, this principle allows us to perceive a tall person as tall whether they are standing next to us or off in the distance
- When we apply same principle to 2D objects, errors can result
117
Q
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
A
- Law of simplicity
- states that every stimulus is perceived in its most simple form
- Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
- The whole (a picture, a car) carried a different and altogether greater meaning that its individual components (paint, canvas, brush; or tire, paint metal). In viewing the “whole” a cognitive process takes place - the mind makes a leap from comprehending the parts to realising the whole
- We visually and psychologically attempt to make order out of chaos, to create harmony or structure from seemingly disconnected bits of infrormation
118
Q
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
A
- As any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person
- Motivated by ALTRUISM
119
Q
ALTRUISM
A
- Is the desire to help another even if it involves a cost to the helper
- Possibility that altruism is genetic
120
Q
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
A
- Attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection
- Darwin (1859), natural selection favours genes that promote ‘the survival or the individual’
- Evolutionary theory and altruism: kin selection, reciprocity, learning social norms
121
Q
KIN SELECTION
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
A
- the idea that behaviours that help a genetic relative are forwarded by natural selection
- the more a person ensures his or her relative survival, the greater the change of his/her genes will pass on
122
Q
RECIPROCITY
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
A
- the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help you in the future
- because of its survival value the norm of reciprocity may have become genetically based (Bavon, 1977)
- third way the evolutionary can explain altruism is the ability to learn and follow social norms
- Simon suggests that those who are the best learners of societal norms have a competitive advantage and are important societal norm is ALTRUISM
123
Q
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
A
- Argues that much of what we do stems from the desire to maximise our outcomes and minimise our costs
- based off self interest
- doesn’t assume that self-interest has a genetic bias
124
Q
3 TYPES OF REWARDS
A
- can increase the probability that someone will help us in return
- Can relieve the personal distress of the bystander
- It can gain us social approval and increased self-worth…cognitive dissonance
125
Q
THE PURE MOTIVE FOR HELPING
A
- Batons (1991) argues that our altruism is most likely to come into play when we experience empathy for the person in need
- that is, we are able to experience events and emotions in the way that the person experiences them
126
Q
PERSCH DETERMINANTS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
GENDER DIFFERENCES
A
- Gender is another personal variable
- men are most likely to help in heroic, chivalrous ways
- women are more likely to help in nurturing ways that involve long term commitment
127
Q
PERSCH DETERMINANTS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
A
- all cultures help members of the ingroup over the outgroup
128
Q
SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
RURAL VS URBAN
A
- people in rural areas are more helpful
- effect has over a wide variety of ways of helping and in many countries
- one explanation is that people from rural setting are brought up to be more neighbourly and more likely to trust strangers
MILGRAM - the idea that people living in cities are likely to keep to themselves in order to avoid being overloaded by all the stimulation they receive
129
Q
ANALYSIS ON STIMULATION HYPOTHESIS
A
- if over stimulation is the key, then one would expect that population density, not overall population would produce more stimulation and less helping behaviour
- is what has found in a number of field studies, conducted in the US
130
Q
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION; THE LATANE AND DARLEY MODEL
A
- one would think that the greater the number of bystanders the more likely to help..not true
- opposite
- 5 decision steps
1. noticing the event
2. interpreting the event as an emergency
3. assuming responsibility
4. knowing how to help
5. deciding to implement the help
131
Q
DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY
A
- each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decrease as the number of anonymity increases
132
Q
THE NATURE OF RELATIONSHIP; COMMUNAL vs EXCHANGE
A
- more likely to help a partner in a communal relationship
- helping in exchange relationships are governed by these rules and norms that differ from those in governing communal
- in exchange people are concerned more with who is getting what
- communal relationships people are concerned less with who gets what and more with how much help the others need
