Exam Review Flashcards

Question

Circumduction

Answer 1

A combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (eg. a softball pitcher throwing the ball using a windmill action)

Answer 2

Protraction - Moving in an anterior (forward) direction (eg. sticking your chin out) Retraction - The opposite of protraction; moving in a posterior (backward) direction (eg. pushing your shoulders back to squeeze your shoulder blades)

Answer 3

Opposition - Occurs when the thumb comes into contact with one of the other fingers Reposition - The opposite of opposition; occurs when the thumb is returned to the anatomical position

Answer 4

- Structural Support (soft tissue, muscles, and organs) - Protection (delicate parts of the body. Eg, the brain is protected by the skull; heart and lungs are protected by rib cage) - Growth Center for cells (red blood cells and platelets are produced in bones) - Reservoir of Minerals (body can call upon to regulate the level of calcium and phosphorus) - Movement (muscles attach to bones by tendons. Muscles contract and move bones to facilitate movement)

Answer 5

- 80 bones (skull, spine, ribs + breastbone) Functions: - Support & Protection - Surface for muscle attachment (most muscles originate and insert on the appendicular skeleton; core muscles) - Stability & Support (core muscles provide proper posture and alignment) - House Special sense organs (taste, smelling, hearing, balance, sight) - Blood Formation (vertebrae, ribs, and sternum contain bone marrow which is where red blood cells are formed)

Answer 6

- 126 bones - 64 in upper extremity (attached to pectoral girdle. Arms, shoulders, hands) - 62 in lower extremity (attached to pelvic girdle. Legs, feet, pelvis) Functions: - Movement - Mobility

Answer 7

Thick bands of fibrous tissue that help thicken and reinforce joint capsule and connect bone to bone; prevent bone from dislocating during movement

Answer 8

- The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a ligament in the knee that prevents the tibia from sliding out in front of the femur - Most common in sports - Tear or sprain that occurs in the ACL; tears can be partial or complete - Grade 1 (least severe) - stretched but not teared - Grade 2 (partial tear) - cannot provide full stability for the joint - Grade 3 (complete tear) - split into 2 pieces - The ACL is a dense connective tissue which runs from the femur to the tibia. Forms a cross-section with the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) which fits perfectly in the intercondylar notch. - Common causes include suddenly stopping, sudden change of direction, pivoting with your foot firmly planted, landing awkwardly, direct blow, collision - Symptoms of injury include a loud pop or popping sensation, severe pain, rapid swelling, loss of motion, instability ACL injuries are diagnosed by: - Tests - pulling tibia away from femur; if ACL is still intact, they won’t move. - MRI - shows soft tissues and bones. - Listen - popping noise in when the knee moves - Walking - limping - X-rays - WON’T work. ACL are tears, not breaks Recovery treatments involve: - Knee brace - many continue to wear a knee brace after an ACL injury for extra support - Physical Therapy - usually used after surgery. Exercises that strengthen muscles around knee to help regain full range of motion - Stretches - help support and strengthen the ACL. - Surgery Grade 3 tears usually require surgery Grade 2 may sometimes heal over time with physical therapy Involves replacing the damaged ACL with new tissue to help new ligaments grow in its place Recovery time is typically between 6-9 months and physical therapy is required

Answer 9

Inversion - occurs when standing on the outside of the foot and ankle rolls in. Very common and causes damage to lateral ligaments (anterior and posterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments) Eversion - occurs when standing on the inside of the foot and ankle rolls out. Uncommon due to the fibula restricting the ankle and is often accompanied by a fibula fracture. Causes damage to medial ligaments (deltoid)

Answer 10

- Surrounds the body’s internal organs (including blood vessels, hair follicles, and the urinary, genital, and digestive tracts) - Contracts more slowly than skeletal muscle but can remain contracted for longer periods - Involuntary

Answer 11

- Found only in the heart - Responsible for creating the action that pumps blood. - Involuntary (directed to act by the autonomic nervous system)

Answer 12

- Attached to the bone (tendons) - Most prevalent muscle type (30-40% of weight) - Voluntary – humans have conscious control (the brain can tell them what to do) - Referred to as striated or striped because it appears as a series of alternating light and dark stripes

Answer 13

Location of the Muscle Action of the muscle Direction of muscle fibres Shape of the muscle Number of origins Origins & insertions Relative Size (LADSNOR)

Answer 14

Agonist - the muscle primarily responsible for movement Antagonist - the muscle that counteracts the agonist, lengthening when the agonist muscle contracts

Answer 15

Origin - the point where the muscle attaches to the more stationary (motionless) bones on the axial skeleton Insertion - the point where the muscle attaches to the bone that is moved during contraction Eg. When you contract your biceps, you pull your forearm towards your shoulder, meaning you are pulling towards the origin. The insertion is located on the tibial tuberosity of the forearm that moves during contraction

Answer 16

A larger and stronger sheath, that envelops the entire muscle (binding the fascicles together)

Answer 17

A sheath of connective tissue (within the epimysium) that binds groups of muscle fibres (fascicles) together

Answer 18

All the connective tissues of the muscle fibre extend beyond the muscle and become one with this structure. This then extends and becomes one with the bone’s periosteum. Attaches muscle to bone. Located on each end of skeletal muscles and crosses joints to attach to the bone.

Answer 19

A sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fibre

Answer 20

A cylindrical, multinucleate cell composed of numerous myofibrils that contract when stimulated

Answer 21

Thread-like structures that run along the length of the muscle fibre. Contain finer “thick” and “thin” filaments (myosin and actin)

Answer 22

A cellular protein that contains 2 other proteins - troponin, which has a binding site for calcium, and tropomyosin, which is the “stringy-looking” cord-like structure that covers the binding site on actin. Together these 2 proteins behave like a swivel-locking mechanism – they will not allow the myosin head to attach until calcium is released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Answer 23

A cellular protein consists of a “head” and “tail”, similar to the look of a golf club. The myosin head will have an attachment site for actin, and actin will have a binding site for the myosin head

Answer 24

A plasma membrane found beneath the endomysium that contains the muscle cell’s cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)

Answer 25

Compartments found along the myofibril containing actin and myosin

Answer 26

The muscle cell’s cytoplasm, which is contained by the sarcolemma

Answer 27

A network of channels in each muscle fibre that transports the electrochemical substances involved in muscle activation

Answer 28

The motor neuron, its axon (pathway), and the muscle fibres it stimulates are together referred to as the motor unit - Nerves transmit impulses in “waves” that ensure smooth movements - A single neuron impulse and the resulting contraction is called a muscle twitch - One neuron or nerve (called the “motor neuron”) may be responsible for stimulating a number of muscle fibres Motor units comply to a rule known as the all-or- none principle (or law) - When a motor unit is stimulated to contract, it will do so to its fullest potential - If a motor unit consists of 10 muscle fibres and they are “turned on” either all fibres will contract or none will

Answer 29

Muscles contract as a result of the overlapping of actin and myosin filaments, relative to one another. This causes the sarcomere (and the whole muscle fibre) to contract. It is possible to detect small bridges on the thick filaments that extend to the thin filaments called “myosin cross bridges.” These attach, rotate, detach, and re-attach in rapid succession which causes the sliding or overlapping of the filaments, a shortening of the sarcomere, and the muscle contraction The “trigger mechanism” for the process is the release of calcium ions when the nerve impulse is transmitted through the muscle fibre. The release of calcium in the presence of the proteins troponin and tropomyosin facilitates (or removes obstacles to) the interaction of myosin and actin molecules Muscle relaxation caused by the re-uptake of calcium ions requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy-carrying molecule that results from food metabolism. ATP is also used to detach myosin from the actin molecule. As the work of the muscles increases, more ATP is used up and must be replaced through food metabolism for the process to continue

Answer 30

Neurons in our bodies transmit information to each other through a series of neural connections that form a pathway, or circuit A reflex arc is a simple neural pathway along which an initial sensory stimulus and a corresponding message travel - The stimulus from sensory neurons is sent to the central nervous system (CNS), but there is little or no interpretation of the signal. Few, if any, interneurons are involved - The signal is transmitted to a motor neuron, which elicits a response (Eg. a knee jerk) 5 parts - Receptor - receives the initial stimulus - Sensory (or afferent) Nerve Carries the impulse to the spinal column or brain - Intermediate Nerve Fibre (adjustor or interneuron) - interprets the signal and issues an appropriate response - Motor (or efferent) Nerve - carries the response message from the spinal cord to the muscle or organ - Effector Organ - carries out the response

Answer 31

Reflexes are automatic, rapid, and unconscious responses to a particular stimulus. - Cerebral reflex - the control for the reflex is located in the brain. - Spinal reflex - the control for the reflex is located in the spinal cord

Answer 32

Autonomic reflexes - mediated by the autonomic nervous system and usually involve the activation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (regulate body functions such as digestion, elimination, blood pressure, salivation, and sweating) Somatic reflexes - involve stimulation of skeletal muscles by the somatic nervous system and include reflexes such as the stretch reflex and the withdrawal reflex

Answer 33

Anaerobic - Occurs without the requirement of oxygen. It can occur in 2 separate metabolic pathways, 1 not involving the breakdown of glucose and the other involving the partial breakdown of glucose Aerobic - A separate, but to some extent overlapping energy system, that requires oxygen. Involves many enzymes and several complex sub-pathways that lead to the breakdown of glucose (fats and proteins also enter the cycle at this stage)

Answer 34

- Allows for a quick, surge of power - 1-2 chemical reactions - Simplest of the 2 anaerobic pathways - It is “alactic” - lactic acid is not a byproduct (no by- products) - Relies on the action of phosphocreatine (compound stored in muscle and readily accessible) to sustain the levels of ATP required during the initial phase of short but intense activity - Yields 1 molecule of ATP for about 10-15 seconds - Intense activities that are of short duration (eg. shotput, 100m sprint) rely heavily on ATP-PC because it provides the highest rate of ATP resynthesis. - PC + ADP → ATP + creatine - Occurs in the cytoplasm

Answer 35

- Allows for a quick surge of energy - Glucose is the main energy source - Involves the partial breakdown of glucose, with lactic acid as a byproduct - The buildup of lactic acid is painful and further activity is hampered - 11 separate reactions - Yields 2 molecules of ATP for approximately 15-90 seconds of high-level performance (eg. 200m sprint, hockey shift) - Transfers energy from glucose and rejoins phosphate to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) - C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi → 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP + 2H2O - Occurs in the cytoplasm

Answer 36

- Main source of energy during endurance events - Involves oxygen and the complete breakdown of glucose - Yields large amounts of ATP - 36 molecules of ATP for every molecule of glucose. - Can sustain activity for a long time or until other physiological limits are reached (120 secs and beyond) - Endurance events (eg. marathon run) Involves 3 sub-pathways - -- -- Glycolysis: Same as the aerobic lactic system except that, in the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA rather than lactic acid. - Kreb’s Cycle (or “citric acid cycle”) Involves 8 chemical reactions 2 ATP molecules are produced at the end, along with new compounds capable of storing high- energy electrons - Electron Transport Chain Large amounts of ATP are produced (36 molecules) CO2 and H2O are the only by-products Series of electron carriers and protein complexes that accept and donate electrons in a sequential series. The final electron acceptor is oxygen - Fats, proteins, and glucose are used as energy sources - During exercise the primary sources of energy are carbohydrates and fats; protein is accessible and only contributes a small % of total energy used - Slow; requires a large amount of oxygen - C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP - Occurs in the Mitochondria of cells

Answer 37

A created byproduct from glycolysis. When oxygen is available it can be the starting point of the third metabolic pathway (cellular respiration) by helping to start the Kreb's cycle.

Answer 38

When oxygen is not readily available pyruvate turns into lactic acid which can cause exhaustion and pain in the muscles. It is most known for the burning sensation it can create in the muscles.

Answer 39

- Red or dark in colour (high levels of myoglobin) - Generates tension and relaxes slowly; maintains lower level of tension for a longer periods - Slow myosin ATPase (enzyme found on thick filament, body uses to produce instant energy for muscle contraction) - Low levels of glycolytic enzymes (permits release of glycogen within muscle) - High levels of oxidative enzymes (increases rate at which ATP is produced aerobically) - Ideal for activities such as long-distance running, swimming, and cycling

Answer 40

- Pale in colour (lower levels of myoglobin) - Ability to tense and relax quickly; generate large amounts of tension with low endurance levels (fatigues quickly) - Different type of myosin ATPase (fast) and high levels of glycolytic enzymes - Activate at a rate of 2-3 times faster than slow twitch fibres - Ideal for fast powerful muscle contractions needed for activities such as short sprints, powerlifting, and explosive jumping

Answer 41

- Generate energy slowly - Fatigue-resistant - Primarily depend on aerobic processes

Answer 42

- Intermediate-type muscle fibres - Allow for high-speed energy release - Allow for glycolytic capacity

Answer 43

- Store glycogen and high levels of enzymes - Allows for quick contraction without the need for oxygen

Answer 44

Protective sac that surrounds the heart (loose fit allows the heart to expand and contract)

Answer 45

Outer layer that lies against the pericardium

Answer 46

Muscle tissue that makes up the heart and lies below the epicardium (similar to skeletal muscle, but cells have special contractile properties)

Answer 47

Final layer of tissue that lines the inside of the heart (inner layer)

Answer 48

Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior Vena Cava

Answer 49

Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries

Answer 50

Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins

Answer 51

Pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the aorta

Answer 52

- Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. - Walls are very thick and muscular due to them having to withstand the pressure of the heart - Systemic circulation - arteries carry oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart towards body tissues - Pulmonary circulation - arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart towards the lungs.

Answer 53

- Vessels in the blood circulation system that branch arteries to capillaries, where gas exchange eventually occurs. - Surround by smooth muscle - Primary site of vascular resistance - Smaller than arteries

Answer 54

- Smallest of blood vessels - Help to enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients and waste substances between the blood and the tissues

Answer 55

- Small, thin-walled extensions of the capillaries - Lead into the veins, which return blood to the heart from another trip throughout the vascular system

Answer 56

- Blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart - Systemic circulation - carries deoxygenated blood towards the right side of the heart from body tissues - Pulmonary circulation - carries oxygenated blood towards the left side of the heart from the lungs

Answer 57

Related to breathing. With each breath taken in by the respiratory system, pressure in the chest cavity is very low for a few seconds, while the pressure in the abdominal cavity increases Pressure within the veins found in the chest decreases, while the pressure in the veins within the abdominal cavity increases. The difference in pressure between the veins in the 2 body cavities pushes blood from the veins in the abdominal cavity into the veins in the thoracic cavity because of the one-way valves found in the veins.

Answer 58

When cardiac output needs to be increased (eg. exercise) the nervous system sends a signal to the veins causing them to slightly constrict (vasoconstriction). Helps return more blood to the heart

Answer 59

Term used to describe how with each contraction of a skeletal muscle, blood is pushed or massaged by that muscle. Occurs because of the one-way valves found within the veins Each contraction of a muscle compresses the veins within or around the muscle, increasing pressure within that vein. The increase in pressure moves the blood along, and because of the one-way valves, the only direction the blood can travel is back toward the heart

Answer 60

The amount of blood the heart pumps per minute

Answer 61

The amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle in a single beat

Answer 62

The number of times the heart beats within a minute

Answer 63

The force exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries

Answer 64

Refers to the pressure measured in the arteries during the contraction phase (eg. 120 mmHg)

Answer 65

Refers to the pressure measured in the arteries during the relaxation phase of the heart (eg. 80mmHg)

Answer 66

Structure: - Mouth and nose, larynx, trachea - Primary and secondary bronchioles - Tertiary bronchioles Function: - Filters air as breath - Warms air to body temperature (37C) - Saturates air with moisture - Protects sensitive tissues making up the respiratory zone

Answer 67

Structure: - Respiratory bronchioles - Alveolar ducts - Alveolar sacs (alveoli) Function: - Involved with the exchange of gasses between lungs and blood vessels

Answer 68

Prevent foods and drinks from falling down the trachea (windpipe). Located at the entrance of the larynx

Answer 69

O2 Transport - 2 ways oxygen is transported within the blood: - 2% dissolved within the blood plasma - Rest binds to specialized protein in erythrocytes (RBCs) called hemoglobin 1.34mL of O2 per gram of hemoglobin - The average concentration of hemoglobin is ~16 mg/100mL of blood

Answer 70

CO2 Transport - 3 ways carbon dioxide is transported within the blood: - 5-10% CO2 remains unchanged, dissolved in the plasma - 20% binds to hemoglobin (on erythrocytes) forming carbaminohemoglobin when there are low concentrations of O2 - O2 in the lungs is high which causes CO2 to be released from the hemoglobin (diffuses into alveoli and is exhaled) - 70-75% of CO2 transported through the bicarbonate system

Answer 71

The amount of oxygen taken in during stressful exercise minus the amount of oxygen that would otherwise have been required for steady-state aerobic exercise During this period, the working muscle must partially rely on metabolic systems that do not require oxygen(anaerobic metabolic systems) These anaerobic systems make up the difference and compensate for the “lag” in VO2, allowing the exercise to continue at the new workload