Exam Review Flashcards
What is Anatomy?
The branch of science that deals with the structural organization of living organisms (how they are built and what they consist of)
What is Physiology?
The study of the functions of the body
What is Kinesiology?
The study of the dynamics of human movement and its components
What are planes of movement?
Imaginary flat surfaces passing through the body or organs. Relates to positions in space and are at right angles to one another
Transverse Plane
Superior (upper) and inferior (lower) segments
Sagittal Plane
Right and left segments
Frontal Plane
Anterior (front) and posterior (back) segments
What are axes of movement?
Series of imaginary lines used to describe the direction of movement at the joints
Horizontal Axis
Extends from 1 side of the body to the other (east-west)
Longitudinal Axis
Vertical, running from head to toe (north-south)
Antero-Posterior Axis
Extends from the front of the body to the back
Planes & Axes
Horizontal → Sagittal
Longitudinal → Transverse
Antero-Posterior → Frontal
Axis of rotation are always what to planes of motion?
Perpendicular
What is the anatomical position?
The universally accepted, standard position used to view the human body. Used to describe the locations and relationships of anatomical parts on the body.
What are the key features of the anatomical position?
- Upright standing position
- Head, eyes, and toes facing
forward - Feet are together with arms
slightly out to the side - Forearms fully supinated
(palms facing forward)
What are the anatomical relationships?
- Anterior/Posterior
- Superior/Inferior
- Medial/Lateral
- Proximal/Distal
Proximal - closer to the
point of attachment of the
limb to the body
Distal - further away from
the point of attachment of
the limb to the body
Movement at Joints
- All flexion/extension
movements happen in the
sagittal plane - All abduction/adduction
movements happen in the
frontal plane - All rotational movements
happen in the transverse
plane
Flexion vs. Extension
Flexion - Bending at a joint such that the joint angle decreases (eg. bending elbow to bring palm up towards face)
Extension - Opposite to flexion; occurs when joint angle increases (eg. straightening arm)
Abduction vs. Adduction
Abduction - Occurs when you move a body segment to the side and away from your body (eg. moving arm out to the side and bringing it level with the shoulder)
Adduction - Opposite to abduction; occurs when you move a body segment towards your body (eg. bringing the arm back down to the side)
Plantar Flexion vs. Dorsiflexion
Plantar Flexion - Specific to the ankle joint; occurs when you point your toes (eg. on tiptoes)
Dorsiflexion - Specific to the ankle joint; opposite to plantar flexion; occurs when you bend at the ankle to bring the top of your foot closer to your shin (eg. walking, jumping, etc)
Supination vs. Pronation
Supination - Rotating the wrist such that the palm is facing forward (eg. catching a softball underhand with one hand)
Pronation - Occurs in the opposite direction to supination; rotating the wrist such that the palm of your wrist is facing backward (eg. wrist would have to pronate when dribbling a basketball)
Inversion vs. Eversion
Inversion - Associated with ankle joint; is the result of standing on the outer edge of your foot (eg. twisted ankle)
Eversion - Associated with ankle joint; occurs in opposite direction to inversion; is a result of standing on the inner edge of your foot
External Rotation vs. Internal Rotation
External Rotation - Results when you twist or turn a body part outward from the midline (eg, turning your toe outward)
Internal Rotation - Results when you twist or turn a body part inward toward the midline (eg. turning your toe inward)
Elevation vs. Depression
Elevation - Refers to movement in a superior (upwards) direction (eg. raising your shoulders upwards)
Depression - The opposite of elevation; is a movement in an inferior (downward) direction (eg. slouching to bring down) your shoulders)
Circumduction
A combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (eg. a softball pitcher throwing the ball using a windmill action)
Protraction vs. Retraction
Protraction - Moving in an anterior (forward) direction (eg. sticking your chin out)
Retraction - The opposite of protraction; moving in a posterior (backward) direction (eg. pushing your shoulders back to squeeze your shoulder blades)
Opposition vs. Reposition
Opposition - Occurs when the thumb comes into contact with one of the other fingers
Reposition - The opposite of opposition; occurs when the thumb is returned to the anatomical position
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
- Structural Support (soft
tissue, muscles, and
organs) - Protection (delicate parts of
the body. Eg, the brain is
protected by the skull;
heart and lungs are
protected by rib cage) - Growth Center for cells (red
blood cells and platelets are
produced in bones) - Reservoir of Minerals (body
can call upon to regulate
the level of calcium and
phosphorus) - Movement (muscles attach
to bones by tendons.
Muscles contract and move
bones to facilitate
movement)
What is the Axial Skeleton?
- 80 bones (skull, spine, ribs
+ breastbone)
Functions: - Support & Protection
- Surface for muscle
attachment (most muscles
originate and insert on the
appendicular skeleton; core
muscles) - Stability & Support (core
muscles provide proper
posture and alignment) - House Special sense organs
(taste, smelling, hearing,
balance, sight) - Blood Formation
(vertebrae, ribs, and
sternum contain bone
marrow which is where red
blood cells are formed)
What is the Appendicular Skeleton?
- 126 bones
- 64 in upper extremity
(attached to pectoral girdle.
Arms, shoulders, hands) - 62 in lower extremity
(attached to pelvic girdle.
Legs, feet, pelvis)
Functions: - Movement
- Mobility
What are ligaments?
Thick bands of fibrous tissue that help thicken and reinforce joint capsule and connect bone to bone; prevent bone from dislocating during movement
What is an ACL tear?
- The anterior cruciate
ligament (ACL) is a ligament
in the knee that prevents
the tibia from sliding out in
front of the femur - Most common in sports
- Tear or sprain that occurs
in the ACL; tears can be
partial or complete - Grade 1 (least severe) -
stretched but not teared - Grade 2 (partial tear) -
cannot provide full stability
for the joint - Grade 3 (complete tear) -
split into 2 pieces - The ACL is a dense
connective tissue which
runs from the femur to the
tibia. Forms a cross-section
with the posterior cruciate
ligament (PCL) which fits
perfectly in the
intercondylar notch. - Common causes include
suddenly stopping, sudden
change of direction,
pivoting with your foot
firmly planted, landing
awkwardly, direct blow,
collision - Symptoms of injury include
a loud pop or popping
sensation, severe pain,
rapid swelling, loss of
motion, instability
ACL injuries are diagnosed
by: - Tests - pulling tibia away
from femur; if ACL is still
intact, they won’t move. - MRI - shows soft tissues
and bones. - Listen - popping noise in
when the knee moves - Walking - limping
- X-rays - WON’T work. ACL
are tears, not breaks
Recovery treatments involve: - Knee brace - many
continue to wear a knee
brace after an ACL
injury for extra support - Physical Therapy - usually
used after surgery.
Exercises that strengthen
muscles around knee to
help regain full range of
motion - Stretches - help support
and strengthen the ACL. - Surgery
Grade 3 tears usually
require surgery
Grade 2 may sometimes
heal over time with physical
therapy
Involves replacing the
damaged ACL with new
tissue to help new
ligaments grow in its place
Recovery time is typically
between 6-9 months and
physical therapy is required
Inversion vs. Eversion Sprains
Inversion - occurs when standing on the outside of the foot and ankle rolls in. Very common and causes damage to lateral ligaments (anterior and posterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments)
Eversion - occurs when standing on the inside of the foot and ankle rolls out. Uncommon due to the fibula restricting the ankle and is often accompanied by a fibula fracture. Causes damage to medial ligaments (deltoid)
What is smooth muscle?
- Surrounds the body’s
internal organs (including
blood vessels, hair follicles,
and the urinary, genital,
and digestive tracts) - Contracts more slowly than
skeletal muscle but can
remain contracted for
longer periods - Involuntary
What is cardiac muscle?
- Found only in the heart
- Responsible for creating
the action that pumps
blood. - Involuntary (directed to act
by the autonomic nervous
system)
What is skeletal muscle?
- Attached to the bone
(tendons) - Most prevalent muscle type
(30-40% of weight) - Voluntary – humans have
conscious control (the brain
can tell them what to do) - Referred to as striated or
striped because it appears
as a series of alternating
light and dark stripes
How are muscles named?
Location of the Muscle
Action of the muscle
Direction of muscle fibres
Shape of the muscle
Number of origins
Origins & insertions
Relative Size
(LADSNOR)
Agonist vs. Antagonist
Agonist - the muscle primarily responsible for
movement
Antagonist - the muscle that counteracts the agonist, lengthening when the agonist muscle contracts
Origin vs. Insertion
Origin - the point where the
muscle attaches to the
more stationary
(motionless) bones on the
axial skeleton
Insertion - the point where
the muscle attaches to the bone that is moved during
contraction
Eg. When you contract your
biceps, you pull your
forearm towards your shoulder, meaning you are
pulling towards the origin.
The insertion is located on
the tibial tuberosity of the
forearm that moves during
contraction
What is the Epimysium?
A larger and stronger sheath, that envelops the entire muscle (binding the fascicles together)
What is the Perimysium?
A sheath of connective tissue (within the epimysium) that binds groups of muscle fibres (fascicles) together
What is a tendon?
All the connective tissues of the muscle fibre extend beyond the muscle and become one with this structure. This then extends and becomes one with the bone’s periosteum. Attaches muscle to bone. Located on each end of skeletal muscles and crosses joints to attach to the bone.
What is the Endomysium?
A sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fibre
What is a Muscle Fibre?
A cylindrical, multinucleate cell composed of numerous myofibrils that contract when stimulated
What is Myofibril?
Thread-like structures that run along the length of the muscle fibre. Contain finer “thick” and “thin” filaments (myosin and actin)
What is Actin?
A cellular protein that contains 2 other proteins - troponin, which has a binding site for calcium, and tropomyosin, which is the “stringy-looking” cord-like structure that covers the binding site on actin. Together these 2 proteins behave like a swivel-locking mechanism – they will not allow the myosin head to attach until calcium is released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum
What is Myosin?
A cellular protein consists of a “head” and “tail”, similar to the look of a golf club. The myosin head will have an attachment site for actin, and actin will have a binding site for the myosin head
What is the Sarcolemma?
A plasma membrane found beneath the endomysium that contains the muscle cell’s cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)
What is the Sarcomere?
Compartments found along the myofibril containing actin and myosin
What is the Sarcoplasm?
The muscle cell’s cytoplasm, which is contained by the sarcolemma
What is the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
A network of channels in each muscle fibre that transports the electrochemical substances involved in muscle activation
What is the All or None Principle?
The motor neuron, its axon
(pathway), and the muscle
fibres it stimulates are
together referred to as the
motor unit
- Nerves transmit impulses
in “waves” that ensure
smooth movements
- A single neuron impulse
and the resulting
contraction is called a
muscle twitch
- One neuron or nerve
(called the “motor neuron”)
may be responsible for
stimulating a number of
muscle fibres
Motor units comply to a
rule known as the all-or-
none principle (or law)
- When a motor unit is
stimulated to contract, it
will do so to its fullest
potential
- If a motor unit consists of
10 muscle fibres and they
are “turned on” either all
fibres will contract or none
will
What is the Sliding Filament Theory?
Muscles contract as a result of the overlapping of actin and myosin filaments, relative to one another. This causes the sarcomere (and the whole muscle fibre) to contract.
It is possible to detect small bridges on the thick filaments that extend to the thin filaments called “myosin cross bridges.” These attach, rotate, detach, and re-attach in rapid succession which causes the sliding or overlapping of the filaments, a shortening of the sarcomere, and the muscle contraction
The “trigger mechanism” for the process is the release of calcium ions when the nerve impulse is transmitted through the muscle fibre. The release of calcium in the presence of the proteins troponin and tropomyosin facilitates (or removes obstacles to) the interaction of myosin and actin molecules
Muscle relaxation caused by the re-uptake of calcium ions requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy-carrying molecule that results from food metabolism. ATP is also used to detach myosin from the actin molecule. As the work of the muscles increases, more ATP is used up and must be replaced through food metabolism for the process to continue
What is the Reflex Arc?
Neurons in our bodies transmit information to each other through a series of neural connections that form a pathway, or circuit
A reflex arc is a simple neural pathway along which an initial sensory stimulus and a corresponding message travel
- The stimulus from sensory
neurons is sent to the
central nervous system
(CNS), but there is little or
no interpretation of the
signal. Few, if any,
interneurons are involved
- The signal is transmitted to
a motor neuron, which
elicits a response (Eg. a
knee jerk)
5 parts
- Receptor - receives the
initial stimulus
- Sensory (or afferent) Nerve
Carries the impulse to the
spinal column or brain
- Intermediate Nerve Fibre
(adjustor or interneuron) -
interprets the signal and
issues an appropriate
response
- Motor (or efferent) Nerve -
carries the response
message from the spinal
cord to the muscle or organ
- Effector Organ - carries out
the response
What are Reflexes?
Reflexes are automatic, rapid, and unconscious responses to a particular stimulus.
- Cerebral reflex - the control
for the reflex is located in
the brain.
- Spinal reflex - the control
for the reflex is located in
the spinal cord
How are Reflexes classified?
Autonomic reflexes - mediated by the autonomic nervous system and usually involve the activation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (regulate body functions such as digestion, elimination, blood pressure, salivation, and sweating)
Somatic reflexes - involve stimulation of skeletal muscles by the somatic nervous system and include reflexes such as the stretch reflex and the withdrawal reflex
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Systems
Anaerobic - Occurs without the requirement of oxygen. It can occur in 2 separate metabolic pathways, 1 not involving the breakdown of glucose and the other involving the partial breakdown of glucose
Aerobic - A separate, but to some extent overlapping energy system, that requires oxygen. Involves many enzymes and several complex sub-pathways that lead to the breakdown of glucose (fats and proteins also enter the cycle at this stage)
ATP-PC (Anaerobic Alactic)
- Allows for a quick, surge of
power - 1-2 chemical reactions
- Simplest of the 2 anaerobic
pathways - It is “alactic” - lactic acid is
not a byproduct (no by-
products) - Relies on the action of
phosphocreatine
(compound stored in
muscle and readily
accessible) to sustain the
levels of ATP required
during the initial phase of
short but intense activity - Yields 1 molecule of ATP for
about 10-15 seconds - Intense activities that are of
short duration (eg. shotput,
100m sprint) rely heavily on
ATP-PC because it provides
the highest rate of ATP
resynthesis. - PC + ADP → ATP + creatine
- Occurs in the cytoplasm
Glycolysis (Anaerobic Lactic)
- Allows for a quick surge of
energy - Glucose is the main energy
source - Involves the partial
breakdown of glucose, with
lactic acid as a byproduct - The buildup of lactic acid is
painful and further activity
is hampered - 11 separate reactions
- Yields 2 molecules of ATP
for approximately 15-90
seconds of high-level
performance (eg. 200m
sprint, hockey shift) - Transfers energy from
glucose and rejoins
phosphate to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) - C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi →
2C3H6O3 + 2ATP + 2H2O - Occurs in the cytoplasm
Cellular Respiration
- Main source of energy
during endurance events - Involves oxygen and the
complete breakdown of
glucose - Yields large amounts of ATP
- 36 molecules of ATP for
every molecule of glucose. - Can sustain activity for a
long time or until other
physiological limits are
reached (120 secs and
beyond) - Endurance events (eg.
marathon run)
Involves 3 sub-pathways - – – Glycolysis:
Same as the aerobic lactic
system except that, in the
presence of oxygen, pyruvic
acid is converted to acetyl
CoA rather than lactic acid. - Kreb’s Cycle (or “citric acid cycle”)
Involves 8 chemical
reactions
2 ATP molecules are
produced at the end, along
with new compounds
capable of storing high-
energy electrons - Electron Transport Chain
Large amounts of ATP are
produced (36 molecules)
CO2 and H2O are the only
by-products
Series of electron carriers
and protein complexes that
accept and donate
electrons in a sequential
series. The final electron
acceptor is oxygen - Fats, proteins, and glucose
are used as energy sources - During exercise the primary
sources of energy are
carbohydrates and fats;
protein is accessible and
only contributes a small %
of total energy used - Slow; requires a large
amount of oxygen - C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +
6H2O + ATP - Occurs in the Mitochondria
of cells
What is Pyruvate?
A created byproduct from glycolysis. When oxygen is available it can be the starting point of the third metabolic pathway (cellular respiration) by helping to start the Kreb’s cycle.
What is Lactic Acid?
When oxygen is not readily available pyruvate turns into lactic acid which can cause exhaustion and pain in the muscles. It is most known for the burning sensation it can create in the muscles.
Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres
- Red or dark in colour (high
levels of myoglobin) - Generates tension and
relaxes slowly; maintains
lower level of tension for a
longer periods - Slow myosin ATPase
(enzyme found on thick
filament, body uses to
produce instant energy for
muscle contraction) - Low levels of glycolytic
enzymes (permits release
of glycogen within muscle) - High levels of oxidative
enzymes (increases rate at
which ATP is produced
aerobically) - Ideal for activities such as
long-distance running,
swimming, and cycling
Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres
- Pale in colour (lower levels
of myoglobin) - Ability to tense and relax
quickly; generate large
amounts of tension with
low endurance levels
(fatigues quickly) - Different type of myosin
ATPase (fast) and high
levels of glycolytic enzymes - Activate at a rate of 2-3
times faster than slow
twitch fibres - Ideal for fast powerful
muscle contractions
needed for activities such
as short sprints,
powerlifting, and explosive
jumping
Type I or Slow-Oxidative (SO)
- Generate energy slowly
- Fatigue-resistant
- Primarily depend on
aerobic processes
Type IIA or Fast-Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG)
- Intermediate-type muscle
fibres - Allow for high-speed
energy release - Allow for glycolytic capacity
Type IIB or Fast-Glycolytic (FG)
- Store glycogen and high
levels of enzymes - Allows for quick contraction
without the need for
oxygen
What is the Pericardium?
Protective sac that surrounds the heart (loose fit allows the heart to expand and contract)
What is the Epicardium?
Outer layer that lies against the pericardium
What is the Myocardium?
Muscle tissue that makes up the heart and lies below the epicardium (similar to skeletal muscle, but cells have special contractile properties)
What is the Endocardium?
Final layer of tissue that lines the inside of the heart (inner layer)
What is the Right Atrium?
Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior Vena Cava
What is the Right Ventricle?
Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries
What is the Left Atrium?
Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
What is the Left Ventricle?
Pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the aorta
What are the Arteries?
- Blood vessels that carry
blood away from the heart. - Walls are very thick and
muscular due to them
having to withstand the
pressure of the heart - Systemic circulation -
arteries carry oxygenated
blood from the left side of
the heart towards body
tissues - Pulmonary circulation -
arteries carry deoxygenated
blood from the right side of
the heart towards the
lungs.
What are Arterioles?
- Vessels in the blood
circulation system that
branch arteries to
capillaries, where gas
exchange eventually occurs. - Surround by smooth
muscle - Primary site of vascular
resistance - Smaller than arteries
What are the Capillaries?
- Smallest of blood vessels
- Help to enable the
exchange of water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and other
nutrients and waste
substances between the
blood and the tissues
What are Venules?
- Small, thin-walled
extensions of the capillaries - Lead into the veins, which
return blood to the heart
from another trip
throughout the vascular
system
What are Veins?
- Blood vessels that carry
blood toward the heart - Systemic circulation -
carries deoxygenated blood
towards the right side of
the heart from body tissues - Pulmonary circulation -
carries oxygenated blood
towards the left side of the
heart from the lungs
What is the Thoracic Pump? (3 ways blood is brought back to the heart)
Related to breathing. With each breath taken in by the respiratory system, pressure in the chest cavity is very low for a few seconds, while the pressure in the abdominal cavity increases
Pressure within the veins found in the chest decreases, while the pressure in the veins within the abdominal cavity increases. The difference in pressure between the veins in the 2 body cavities pushes blood from the veins in the abdominal cavity into the veins in the thoracic cavity because of the one-way valves found in the veins.
What is the Nervous System? (3 ways blood is brought back to the heart)
When cardiac output needs to be increased (eg. exercise) the nervous system sends a signal to the veins causing them to slightly constrict (vasoconstriction). Helps return more blood to the heart
What is the Skeletal Muscle Pump? (3 ways blood is brought back to the heart)
Term used to describe how with each contraction of a skeletal muscle, blood is pushed or massaged by that muscle.
Occurs because of the one-way valves found within the veins
Each contraction of a muscle compresses the veins within or around the muscle, increasing pressure within that vein. The increase in pressure moves the blood along, and because of the one-way valves, the only direction the blood can travel is back toward the heart
What is Cardiac Output (Q)?
The amount of blood the heart pumps per minute
What is Stroke Volume (SV)?
The amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle in a single beat
What is Heart Rate (HR)?
The number of times the heart beats within a minute
What is blood pressure?
The force exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries
What is Systolic Blood Pressure?
Refers to the pressure measured in the arteries during the contraction phase (eg. 120 mmHg)
What are Diastolic Blood Pressure?
Refers to the pressure measured in the arteries during the relaxation phase of the heart (eg. 80mmHg)
Conductive Zone
Structure:
- Mouth and nose, larynx,
trachea
- Primary and secondary
bronchioles
- Tertiary bronchioles
Function:
- Filters air as breath
- Warms air to body
temperature (37C)
- Saturates air with moisture
- Protects sensitive tissues
making up the respiratory
zone
Respiratory Zone
Structure:
- Respiratory bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs (alveoli)
Function:
- Involved with the exchange
of gasses between lungs
and blood vessels
What is the role of the Epiglottis?
Prevent foods and drinks from falling down the trachea (windpipe). Located at the entrance of the larynx
How is O2 moved around the body?
O2 Transport - 2 ways oxygen is transported within the blood:
- 2% dissolved within the
blood plasma
- Rest binds to specialized
protein in erythrocytes
(RBCs) called hemoglobin
1.34mL of O2 per gram of
hemoglobin
- The average concentration
of hemoglobin is ~16
mg/100mL of blood
How is CO2 moved around the body?
CO2 Transport - 3 ways carbon dioxide is transported within the blood:
- 5-10% CO2 remains
unchanged, dissolved in the
plasma
- 20% binds to hemoglobin
(on erythrocytes) forming
carbaminohemoglobin
when there are low
concentrations of O2
- O2 in the lungs is high
which causes CO2 to be
released from the
hemoglobin (diffuses into
alveoli and is exhaled)
- 70-75% of CO2 transported
through the bicarbonate
system
What is Oxygen Deficit?
The amount of oxygen taken in during stressful exercise minus the amount of oxygen that would otherwise have been required for steady-state aerobic exercise
During this period, the working muscle must partially rely on metabolic systems that do not require oxygen(anaerobic metabolic systems)
These anaerobic systems make up the difference and compensate for the “lag” in VO2, allowing the exercise to continue at the new workload
