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Exam preparation questions Flashcards

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1
Q

How is stress defined in this course?

A

Stress is a response to a PERCEIVED aversive or threatening situation.
Stress can be positive or negative.
The experience of stress is coloured by the real or perceived lack of control over the stressor.

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2
Q

What is the difference between hormones and neurotransmitters?

A

Neurotransmitters belong to the CNS and act between pre- and post-synaptic neurons.
Hormones belong to the PNS and move through the blood and can act on many different cell types.

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3
Q

What is the key factor that determines how stressful we find a perceived threat?

A

Our perceived level of control.

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4
Q

What is the difference between ACUTE and CHRONIC stress?

A

Acute stress is a one-time event that puts us into fight or flight, but which resolves.

Chronic stress is when the threat feels endless and there is lack of perceived or actual control over the situation.

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5
Q

What are the two main stress response systems in acute stress?

A
  1. HPA axis - Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Adrenal axis - release of CORTISOL.
  2. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
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6
Q

What is the main hormone that is produced via the HPA axis?

What does HPA stand for?

A

Hypothalamus - Pituitary - Adrenal axis.

CORTISOL.

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7
Q

The amygdala perceives threat before we are consciously aware of it.

What is the role of the amygdala?

A

The amygdala receives sensory information about the environment and determines it’s threat level. If it detects threat then it activates the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system response (the sympathetico-adrenal-medullary pathway). This happens before we are even consciously aware of the threat.

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8
Q

What hormone does the pituitary gland release in response to stress (aka being acted upone by corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus)?
Where is this hormone released to?

A

When corticotropin-releasing hormone is released from the hypothalamus and binds to receptors on the pituitary gland, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released into the bloodstream and makes its way to the adrenal glands (more specifically the adrenal cortex). It binds to receptors there, which leads to the release of cortisol into the bloodstream.
Cortisol is a glucocorticoid, which means it increases the metabolism of glucose.

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9
Q

What are the EEG patterns seen in the four different stages of sleep as well as wakefulness?

A

Wakefulness - alpha and beta waves

NREM 1 - theta waves

NREM2 - sleep spindle and k-conplex

NREM 3 - delta waves

REM -beta waves (this is one of REM’s similarities to wakefulness)

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10
Q
A
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11
Q

What part of the brain is responsible for maintaining the rhythm of breathing?

A

The pre Botzinger complex.

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12
Q

What area of the brain receives informaiton from the chemosensors/receptors about levels of o2 and co2?

A

The Retrotrapezoid Nucleus (RTN).

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13
Q

Do we tend to have more slow wave sleep at the start of the night and more REM sleep at the end of the night?

A

Yes.

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14
Q

Areas of the brain to map:

A

PAG
DLPFC
THALAMUS
RAPHE
LC

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15
Q

What are some of the key brain areas involved in placebo analgesia?

A

DLPFC and PAG.

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16
Q

What processes are known to be involved in placebo and nocebo effects?

A

Opioids, dopamine.

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17
Q

How does lack of sleep increase and contribute to chronic pain?

A

Inflammation.
Mood.

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18
Q

What area of the brain is known as the brain’s master clock?

A

The suprachiasmatic nucleus. This area of the brain receives light stimuli.

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19
Q

The left nucleus accumbans’ volume is decreased in those with chronic pain.

What is the role of the mPFC to nucleus accumbans connectivity in pain?

A

The mPFC and nucleus accumbens connectivity is involved in how pain affects our mood and emotion and can be involved in modulating pain.

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20
Q

What is the Neural Correlates of Consciousness theory?

A

That consciousness can be attributed to the neural activity in the brain. There will be a minimal set of neural correlates that give rise to our conscious percept.

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21
Q

What are the three theories of consciousness we discussed?

A

Sparse Coding

Global Workspace

Parietal activity

Integrated Information Theory

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22
Q

How do psychedelics act on the brain, that we know of?

A

They bind to serotonin receptors in the level 5 neurons in the cortex.

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23
Q

What area of the brain is most commonly affected in those with apraxia?

A

The parietal lobe.

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24
Q

What area of the brain is most commonly affected in those with ataxia?

A

The cerebellum.

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25
Q

What is the substantia nigra and what neurodegenerative disorder is it implicated in?

A

The substantia nigra plays a key role in exectuting smooth muscle movement. It is located within the basal ganlgia. It is impaired in those with Parkinson’s.

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26
Q

What pathway has been found to be associated with Parkinson’s disease?

A

The dopamine pathway.

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27
Q

Do dopamine agonists aid those with Parkinson’s disease?

A

Yes.

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28
Q

What is understood about how the polio virus causes paralysis?

A

It leads to the destruction of the grey matter in the spinal cord, including the alpha motor neurons that terminate and project into the muscles from there. No signals can inervate the muscles to contract or release.

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29
Q

In response to stress the HPA axis leads to the production of cortisol from the adrenal cortex.

What neurotransmitter is released in response to stress via the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Noradrenaline and adrenaline.

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30
Q

Where is cortisol released from during stress?

Where are adrenaline and noradrenaline released from during sympathetic nervous system activation?

A

The adrenal cortex.

The adrenal medulla.

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31
Q

During mild stress the PFC inhibits the amygdala.

What happens during acute, extreme stress?

A

The amygdala dominates and the PFC goes offline.

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32
Q

What are some of the longterm changes in the brain due to chronic stress?

A

Increased number and strength of neural connections in the amygdala.

Decreased number and strength of neural connection

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33
Q

Where is the suprachiasmatic nucleus located?

A

In the anterior part of the hypothalamus.

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34
Q

What hormone is responsible for increasing appetite?

What hormone is responsible for decreasing appetite?

A

Grehlin.

Leptin.

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35
Q

What is locked in syndrome?

A

Occurs when there is damage to the pons and leads to complete paralysis, including muscles required to breath. Other brain functions remain intact, such as sleep and wake cycles.

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36
Q

What type of muscle is responsible for voluntary movement?

A

Striated skeletal muscle,

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37
Q

Are flexion and extension of a limb both caused by contraction of muscles?

A

Yes.

38
Q

What is the role of t-tubules in muscle fibre contraction?

A

The t-bules are muscle fibre membrane invaginations that allow the depolarisation, caused by the binding of acetylcholine released by the alpha motor neuron, to travel to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Depolarisation in the t-tubule causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium.
Calcium then binds to actin and allows the myosin-binding sites to be accessed by myosin, in turn shortening the muscle fibre.

39
Q

What is considered a twitch in a muscle fibre?

A

The muscle fibre contraction caused by a single action potential (from an alpha motor neuron).

40
Q

What is a muscle spindle, and what is its role?

A

Muscle spindles are made of intrafusal muscle fibres and are located within muscles and are surrounded by extrafusal muscle fibres. They sense when a muscle fibre lengthens, and send signals via 1a afferents to the alpha motor neuron signalling for it to fire so that the muscle can contract and not get damaged from over-extension. They also send signals up the spine to brain.

41
Q

What are 1b afferent neurons?

A

They innervate golgi organs (encapsulated collagen fibres) which are in the muscle tendons. They sense the tension in muscle. If there is too much tension then they activate an interneuron, which in turn inhibits the firing of alpha motor neruons, so as not to damage muscle by too much contraction.

42
Q

What descending tracts carry information about volunarty motor movement?

What descending tracts carry information about involuntary motor movement?

A

Lateral tracts.

Ventromedial/ventral tracts.

43
Q

Is there cross over of ventromedial descending pathways of motor information?

A

No. They descend the spin ipsilaterally.

44
Q

What area of the brain prevents us from engaging in instinctual behaviour that may cause damage, such as catching a knife we drop?

A

The pre-supplementary motor cortex.

45
Q

Is the basal ganglia often abnormal in those with autism ?

A

Yes.

46
Q

Four signs sleep is occurring?

A

Closed eyes.
Slow, shallow breath.
Unresponsiveness.
Posture.
stillness.
Rapidly reversible.

47
Q

What is sleep?

A

Sleep occurs at relatively regular intervals. It is rapidly reversible. Animal is relatively still, although there are some movements.

48
Q

Cataplexy?

A

Cataplexy can occur in those with narcolepst and is characterised by the lose pf control of skeletal muscles. This normally occurs in response to a strong emotion, such as joy. It is thought to occur as a result of an intrusion of REM sleep into a waking state. It can be treated with antidepressants, as they reduce REM. Consciousness is maintained. Only the REM component of loss of skeletal muscle control is experienced. Breathing and eye movement is maintained.

49
Q

Cetaceans?

A

Do not have REM sleep. Neonates and mothers do not sleep for several weeks after birth and show no rebound effects of sleep deprivation.

50
Q

Painkillers and negative emotions?

A

Painkillers have been found to reduce negative emotions. This is thought to occur, as those experiencing negative emotions, such as social exclusion or grief, show similar brain area activation as those experiencing physical pain. Reducing activation of these areas via painkillers is therefore thought to reduce experience of emotional pain.

51
Q

What area of the brain is the primary region for descending pain modulation pathways?

A

The PAG. It reduces levels of pain via the opioid pathway.

52
Q

Pre Botzinger Area?

A

Regulates rate of breathing.

53
Q

Where in the brain are the areas responsible for respiration?

A

In the pons and medulla.

54
Q

What area of the brain adjusts respiration based on CO2 levels?

A

The retrotrapexoid nucleus (RTN).

55
Q

How does emotion affect respiration?

A

The amygdala has connections with areas in the brain tha regulate respiration, such as the PRG (pontine respiratory group) and the DRG.
These connections allow the amygdala to inform the respiratory control centres of emotion and change respiration according, e.g. in response to fear respiration rate increases, or in response to joy or contentment respiration is slower and calmer.

56
Q

What is the theory of what is happening in panic attacks?

A

Increased respiration rate decreases CO2 levels. This causes sensations of dizziness, palpitations and blurred vision.

57
Q

What is an example of how strong the emotional input on respiration is?

A

Toddlers can become so distraught during a tantrum that they stop breathing.

58
Q

Respiratory abnormalitires seen in those with panic disorder?

A

increased sigh frquency. Thought to be an attempt at releasing excess oxygen.

Increased CO2 sensitivity. Feeling of suffocation more likely to be triggered at smaller dips in CO2 levels than others.

59
Q

What factors can alter the rate and depth of our breathing?

A

Stress levels. If we are stressed we can increase our rate of breathing through the PRG.
If we experience low/high levels of Co2 or oxygen then we will change the rate or depth of volume of inspired/expired breath via the the RTN.

60
Q

What is a genetic factor that influences how much sleep individuals require?

A

Type of adenosine deaminase, which is an enzyme that breaks down adenosine. There are genetic variations within the gene that increase the rate it breaks down adenosine.

61
Q

What are some variables that are known to have a circadian rhythm?

A

Melatonin production.
Alertness.
Body temperature.

62
Q

Do suprachiasmatic nuclei cells require intact connections with other neurons to regulate circadian rhythms?

A

No. Thought to act via chemicals/molecules.

63
Q

What areas of the brain release acetylcholine to promote wakefulness?

A

BF
LDT
PPT

64
Q

What areas of the brain produce serotonin, histamine, noradrenaline, and dopamine respectively, to promote wakefulness?

A

Raphe
TMN
LC
vPAG

65
Q

Are cells in the LC more active during wakefulness than during sleep?

A

Yes.

66
Q

Does activating orexin-releasing neurons awaken a sleeping animal?

A

Yes.

67
Q

Where are orexin-releasing neurons located?

A

Lateral hypothalamus.

68
Q

What areas of the brain do orexin neurons have projections to?

A

Areas of the brain related to wakefulness, such as the LC, LDT, Raphe, LC.

69
Q

What neurotransmitter is responsible for ensuring the areas required for wakefulness are activated at the same time?

A

Orexin.

70
Q

What are two situations that increase orexin activity outside states of wakefulness?

A

Low glucose levels.
Active exploration.

71
Q

What area of the brain inhibits the wakefulness areas of the brain and what neurotransmitters does this area release?

A

The VLPO.
It release GABA and Galanin, which are inhibitory neurotransmitters.
VLPO also inhibits orexin neurons.

72
Q

Do some of the wakefulness areas, such as the LC, TMN and raphe also inhibit the VLPO?

A

Yes.

73
Q

What are the REM sleep on neurons?

A

LDT/PPT active.

SLD also produces GABA which inhibits the REM-off areas.

74
Q

What are the REM sleep off neurons?

A

vlPAG and LPT GABA producing neurons inhibit REM sleep.

75
Q

Are low levels of orexin seen in REM?

A

Yes.

76
Q

What does the MnPO nucleus do?

A

Located next to the VLPO these neurons release GABA and inhibit the wakefulness centres, such as raphe and LC. This structure is active as we start to fall asleep and is though to induce sleep.

77
Q

Narcolepsy occurs when individuals experience intrusions of REM sleep into wake.
These individuals experience higher prevalence of REM at start of sleep.

Why might this occur?

A

Low or decreased levels of orexin.

Receptor abnormalities.

78
Q

REM behaviour disorder occurs when there is a loss of muscle atonia during REM sleep and individuals begin to play out their dreams.

Why might this occur?

A

In Rats, lesioning part of the SLD results in loss of atonia during REM.

79
Q

What is the difference between obstructive and central sleep apnea?

A

In obstructive sleep apnea there are efforts to breath, but breathing cannot occur due to obstruction.

In central sleep apnea there are no efforts to breath. No breathing occurs. This is due to a disturbance in the brain areas that regulate breathing during sleep.

80
Q

What areas of the brain are affected by opiods that can lead to death when the individual sleeps?

A

Opiods can disturb the function of the areas required to maintain breathing during sleep, such as the RTN and pre-Botzinger area.

81
Q

Impairment to memory is often seen in those with OSA. What is one of the reasons this may occur?

A

Prolonged reduced oxygen levels in the brain may impact the hippocampus. The volume of the hippocampus is often reduced in those with OSA.

82
Q

What areas of the brain are thought to be involved in placebo?

A

The DLPFC and PAG.

83
Q

How is analgesia from placebo thought to occur?

A

Expectation of pain relief leads to production of endogenous endorphins, which act on the PAG and lead to production of opiods, which in turn dampen our experience of pain (Descending pathway).

84
Q

What is chronic pain?

A

Pain that outlasts the expected healing time.

85
Q

What is hyperalgesia?

A

Increased sensitivity to pain.

Can be caused by recurrent activation of nociceptors which decreases their threshold of activation, i.e. they are more easily activated.

86
Q

What are some predisposing factors to chronic pain?

A

Gender.
Nerve damage during surgery.
Mood/affect.
Catastrophising.
Early experience of significant pain.

87
Q

The nucleus accumbens has been found to have a decreased volume in those with chronic pain compared to those without.

A
88
Q

What are some reasons that sleep deprivation would lead to increased experiences of pain?

A

Sleep deprivation can lead to increased inflammation.
Decreased mood, increased anxiety and catastrophising.

89
Q

What is one of the key brain areas associated with consciousness?

A

The thalamus.

90
Q
A

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