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Exam prep Flashcards

1
Q

“Can you tell me about your experiences of going to
school during the 1970s?” is an example of a question
that is most likely to be asked in a/an:

A

Unstructured Interview

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2
Q

In _______ research, recording reflective notes about
what you are learning from your data during data
analysis is called_______.

A

Grounded Theory; Memoing

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3
Q

What is member-checking?

A

Member checking, also known as participant or respondent validation, is a technique for exploring the credibility of results. Data or results are returned to participants to check for accuracy and resonance with their experiences.

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4
Q

Name three different types of coding used in a Thematic Analysis. Describe how they differ

A

Descriptive
- Information about whole case (e.g. participant demographics)

Topic
- Systematic coding of text by topic (“hack work”)

Analytical

  • Emerging themes
  • Requires interpretation
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5
Q

There are four elements of research. Provide two examples and define them.

A

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion. Two examples of an epistemology is objectivism and constructivism.

The theoretical perspective is a set of assumptions about reality that inform the questions we ask and the kinds of answers we arrive at as a result. Two examples of theoretical perspectives we use in research are positivism and feminism.

A methodology is system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity. Two examples of methodology we use in reserch are surverys and grounded theory.

Method are the tools we use to aquire knowledge. Two examples of methods used in research are observations and interviews.

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6
Q

What is a suitable opening question for an interview guide?

A

What brought you to participate in this research today?

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7
Q

You are concerned that you own experiences may impact on the research. Name two activities that you could complete to minimise this.

A

Bracketing is a term in the philosophical movement of phenomenology describing the act of suspending judgment about the natural world to instead focus on analysis of experience. Need to set aside own assumptions so that you ‘hear’ the views of
your interviewees.

Bringing on more researchers

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8
Q

What are some of the common ethical issues in research?

A

a) Informed consent (Is it a fully capable adult, a parent giving consent for a child who doesnt want to, both a parent and child)
b) Beneficence- Do not harm (If by participating in research do they have any potential risks?)
c) Respect for anonymity and confidentiality (Will others find out they were apart of the research and see there results)
d) Respect for privacy

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9
Q

Name three qualities that characterise a case study design?

A
  • Must be a bounded system/s (Concrete (individual, group, organisation or less-concrete (relationship, process, community)
  • Must be bounded such that there are clear parameters (time period, particular setting)
  • A unit of analysis in a case study may be a single case (within-site; e.g., single program) or multiple cases (multisite; e.g., several programs)
  • rarely conducted in retrospect
  • convey an in depth understanding, the end product is a rich, thick description of the phenomenon being studied
  • Explore existing phenomenon
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10
Q

Name five sources of data that you could collect as a part of this research

A

Interviews, surveys, observation, narratives, reports, official douments, focus groups, data previously collects, feild notes, ect

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11
Q

What is qualitative research?

A

“Research which is based on rich textual rather than
numerical data”

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research

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12
Q

Describe and explain the Big Q and little q of qualitative research?

A 
Q = “open-ended inductive research methodologies…concerned with theory generation and the exploration of meanings”
q = “incorporation of non-numerical data collection techniques into hypothetico-deductive research designs” – e.g.: adding some open questions to a closed survey

q – doesn’t seek to understand how research participants construe meaning
have pre-defined hypothesis and categories

Q – reflexivity etc, don’t use variables, describe and explain NOT predict

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13
Q

What are procedural ethics?

A

Procedural ethics are Obtaining ethical clearance for your study, Consent forms and participant information sheets

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14
Q

What are Virtue Ethics /ethics in practice ?

A

How researchers address (unanticipated) ethical issues as they arise during the research process

Could be prompted by a ‘gut feeling’, your epistemology or emotional reaction

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15
Q

How do you deal with participants becoming distressed during research?

A
  • Take a break, change topic
  • Provide opportunity for participant to express his/her
    reactions/concerns/thoughts
  • Phone the next day
  • With sensitive topics, identify support mechanisms
  • Important you also have opportunity to debrief
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16
Q

Differences between qualitative and quantitative research?

A

Quantitative:

  • hypothetico-deductive approach
  • linear process
  • deduction (‘top down’)
  • reducing to numbers from surveys, experiments, behavioural coding, etc.
  • Realist

Qualitative:

  • induction (‘bottom up’)
  • iterative
  • a ‘dance’
  • text from field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, videos, artefacts, archives, participant observation, text from media, books, focus group interactions, etc.
  • Relativist
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17
Q

Provide an overview of the reserach process?

A
  1. Identify a philosophical foundation
  2. Frame a research problem
  3. Determine supporting knowledge
  4. Identify a theory base
  5. Propose research question(s)
  6. Select a design strategy (i.e., methodology)
  7. Set study boundaries
  8. Data collection and analysis and drawing of conclusions
  9. Use and disseminate findings
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18
Q

What makes for a good overarching research

question?

A

Avoids quantitative language (Compare, relate, infleunce, cause, effect)

Uses qualitative language (Explore, Understand, Deconstruct)

The first word allows for an open ended question to be asked (How, what)

An overarching qualitative research question cannot be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’

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19
Q

Basic template of an overeaching question?

A

What does (phenonmenon) mean to (participant group)

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20
Q

What is the sampling technique we use in qualitative research?

A

Theoretical sampling: Select people/sites who can best help us understand our phenomenon

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21
Q

What are some teoretical sampling techniques?

A

Convenience sampling: is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

snowball samplingis a nonprobability sampling technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.

typical case sampling: a typical result would be one that reflected the average result found in the whole population

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22
Q

A interview with prescribed questions in prescribed order, would be what kind of interview?

A

Structured interview

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23
Q

A interview with broad question with probes on known areas of inquiry, would be what kind of itnerview?

A

Semi-structured interview

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24
Q

A interview with the following question, would be what kind of interview?

“what is it like to experience……”

A

Unstructured interview

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25
Q

A intervew with a facilitated discussion with purposively selected participants, would be what kind of interview?

A

A focus group

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26
Q

How many interviews in qualitative research?

A

No set rule

Basic elements emerge in first 6 interviews

Saturation occurs in first 12

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27
Q

What is theoretical saturation?

A

means that researchers reach a point in their analysis of data that sampling more data will not lead to more information related to their research questions

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28
Q

What is Reflexivity?

A

refers to the researcher’s awareness of an analytic focus on his or her relationship to the field of study, and the other that attends to the ways that cultural practices involve consciousness and commentary on themselve

Sensitivity to influence

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29
Q

What is credbility?

A

Need to demonstrate that the inquiry was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the phenomenon was identified and described appropriately

Detailed audit of:

  • Sampling
  • Data collection
  • Analysis
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30
Q

What is Transferability?

A

refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings.

Important then to detail the context within which the research was housed

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31
Q

What is Dependability?

A

The stability of data over time and over conditions

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32
Q

What is Confirmability?

A

Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others.

Are the data interpreted with integrity?

Would another research at this time and place and using this methodology arrive at similar conclusions?

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33
Q

Some strategies to increase quality in your research?

A

Audit trail, Reflexivity, Respondent validation/member checking, Negative Cases, Triangulation

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34
Q

What is Intercoder reliability? and problems with it?

A

is the widely used term for the extent to which independent coders evaluate a characteristic of a message or artifact and reach the same conclusion

Not feasible for all data to be double-coded

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35
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data

analysis of what is said rather than how it is said

Uses

  • To identify broad themes or categories that represent data content
  • Does not specifically aim to generate theoryUses
  • To identify broad themes or categories that represent data content
  • Does not specifically aim to generate theory
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36
Q

What is a theme?

A

Theme = patterned response or meaning

Themes can be developed from the data (inductive) or
imposed based on theoretical perspective (deductive)

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37
Q

Phases in thematic analysis?

A
  1. Familiarise self with data
  2. Generate initial codes (= topic codes)
  3. Searching for themes (= analytical codes)
  4. Reviewing themes
  5. Defining and naming themes
  6. Producing the report
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38
Q

What is a poor thematic analysis characterized by?

A
  • Failure to analyse/include analytic narrative
  • Using initial questions as themes
  • Insufficient analysis (overlapping themes, incosistent themes)
  • Mismatch of data and analytic narrative
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39
Q

What are the characteristics of a good thematic analysis?

A
  • It should address your overarching research question
  • It should be an analysis not just a description
  • It should be at least a new local theory or explanation
  • It should be academic and informative
  • It should be a justifiable account of your data
  • It should use language specific to qualitative research
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40
Q

What is an Interpretative phenomenological analysis?

A

Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is an approach to psychological qualitative research with an idiographic focus, which means that it aims to offer insights into how a given person, in a given context, makes sense of a given phenomenon

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41
Q

What is Phenomenology ?

A

A study of people’s subjective and everyday experiences…

from the ‘point of view’ or ‘perspective’ of the subject”

Exploration of ‘the lived experience’ of the subjective world

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42
Q

What is grounded theory?

A

Grounded theory involves the collection and analysis of data. The theory is “grounded” in actual data, which means the analysis and development of theories happens after you have collected the data.

43
Q

What is Memoing?

A

is the act of recording reflective notes about what the researcher (fieldworker, data coder, and/or analyst) is learning from the data

44
Q

Differences of grounded theory to thematic analysis?

A 
The overarching aim is to generate theory
Memoing
Diagramming
Constant comparison
Coding
45
Q

What is a casual layered analysis?

A

Causal layered analysis is a technique used in strategic planning and futures studies to more effectively shape the future.

When you have a wicked, or complex problem that you want to deconstruct

Multilayers effect problem

46
Q

What is analytical rigour?

A

Critical analytical thinking is the bedrock of decision making.

47
Q

Why conduct a case study?

A

When there is little known about a phenomenon

When you wish to explore a phenomenon within its natural context

When theory development is in its early stages

When context is really important

48
Q

What are the different types of case studies?

A

Intrinsic Case Study
-Interest in and of the case itself

Instrumental Case Study
- Interested in a specific issue/ problem/ concern

Collective Case Study (multiple cases)

  • Interested in a specific issue/ problem/ concern
  • Access a number of cases
49
Q

What is Participatory Action Research ?

A

is an approach to research rather than a research method. The approach seeks to situate power within the research process with those who are most affected by a program

Participants involved in decisions about ALL stages of research

50
Q

What are the three principles of PAR?

A
  1. Research with exploited/oppressed communities
  2. Research addresses specific concerns of community and fundamental causes of the oppression, with goal of achieving positive social change
  3. Process of research, education, and action with all participants contributing, learning, and transforming
51
Q

How does PAR differ from other

methodologies?

A

Explicit role of researcher in seeking social justice and human liberation

Focus on research to enable action

Aim for equal power relationships

52
Q

Strengths of qualitative

methodologies?

A
  • May identify the variables or suggest the hypotheses to be tested in subsequent research
  • May develop new theories
  • May challenge the status quo and identify new directions of inquiry
53
Q

Limitations of qualitative

methodologies?

A
  • May be seen as less credible by administrators/funding bodies
  • Longer time for both data collection and analysis
  • More difficult to compare findings across studies
  • Can’t account for cause and effect relationships
54
Q

What is positivism (objectivism) and how to does it sit in regards to methodology?

A

a philosophical system recognizing only that which can be scientifically verified or which is capable of logical or mathematical proof, and therefore rejecting metaphysics and theism.

Hold quantitative very highly

Basis of scientific method

55
Q

Ethical issues to consider when involving children in research?

A

Research merit and integrity:

  • Research and its methods should be appropriate for minors
  • Child-centered rather than adult-centric (Grover, 2004)

Justice:

  • Research should be likely to advance knowledge about the health or welfare of minors
  • Minors’ participation is indispensable to the conduct of the research

Beneficence:
- Research promotes the physical and psychological safety ofthe minor

Respect
- Usually consent from minor AND parent or guardian

56
Q

List some methodology?

A 
Yarning
Grounded Theory
Action Research
Phenomenological (e.g. IPA)
Thematic Analysis
Causal Layered Analysis
57
Q

What is bracketing?

A

Bracketing is a method used in qualitative research to mitigate the potentially deleterious effects of preconceptions that may taint the research process.

Need to set aside own assumptions so that you ‘hear’ the views of your interviewees

58
Q

What are focus groups and what are they characterised by?

A

a sort of collective interview, directed by the researcher
(moderator), which exploits the interactive potential of the situation in order to generate rich data

  • Organised discussion in a group setting of about 6-10 people
  • Moderated/facilitated by a researcher/expert
  • Interaction between participants – this is key!!
59
Q

What is Yarning?

A

A culturally appropriate methodology for the engagement of Indigenous participants

Semi structured interviews

60
Q

What are the 3 different purproses of having a focus group?

A

Exploratory: generate information in a topic area that is largely under researched. Researcher is looking for basic knowledge and ideas.

Clinical: develop an understanding of why it is that people do what they do.

Phenomenological: understand a topic/phenomenon from different groups. Researcher is endeavoring to understand how different sorts of people understand or feel about a phenomenon.

61
Q

What is a social yarn?

A
  • Occurs prior to commencement of research topic yarn
  • Conversational, informal, get to know each other (Gossip, news, jokes, stories but are characterised as being content that both parties are comfortable in discussing)
  • About developing trust and rapport
  • Before recording diviece is turned on
62
Q

What is a Research Topic Yarn?

A

Semi-structured research interview component of the Yarning process

Researcher facilitates the interview such that they are able to make sense of the participant’s stories and accounts as they relate to the research question

Clear beginning and end, purposeful but remaining relaxed and conversational in nature

63
Q

What is a Collaborative Yarn?

A

Yarn when there is interaction in the form of information sharing between two or more people about the research

About sharing ideas, and making sense of ideas together

64
Q

What is Therapeutic Yarn?

A

-While conversing on the topic of the research, the
participants accounts of their story may include
information that is personal or emotional

-The researchers role is to move from exploring their
participants experiences for research purposes, to one
where they are there as a listener, and provide the
opportunity for the participant to disclose

-This is a process of giving voice, serving to empower and give support to the participant

65
Q

What is the Value of Yarning?

A

Is critical for culturally appropriate process of engagement of Indigenous people in research

The approach is culturally safe

The approach has been adopted in a wide range of cultural settings successfully

66
Q

What are the different levels of levels of observation and participation?

A

Complete participation:
-Researcher takes on a role as a member of the group being studied without revealing
their role as a researcher to the group.
-This is deception, and has ethical implications.

Total or complete observation

  • Researcher remains removed from the group.
  • Role as a research very clear and makes no effort at engaging with those being observed.

Participant as observer
-Identity as a researcher known to the group being studied, but also engages in group
activities.
-Full participation in the group is not expected, but can occur.

Observer as non-participant
-Comparable to the study of animal behaviors – removed and watching from a distance.

67
Q

What analysis is best for observation data?

A

Ground theory

68
Q

What is an audit trail?

A

An audit trail is a transparent description of the research steps taken from the start of a research project to the development and reporting of findings. These are records that are kept regarding what was done in an investigation.

69
Q

What is Triangulation?

A

Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or more sources.

70
Q

List and describe the four different types of Triangulation ?

A

Data triangulation
-multiple participants, multiple settings

Investigator triangulation
- multiple researchers, a team

Method triangulation
-interviews, observation, questionnaires, etc.

Theoretical triangulation
-multiple theories to inform data

71
Q

What is Member checking?

A

Respondent validation KEY WORD

Return data/interpretations to individuals participating in research

Seek feedback on ‘fairness’ of representations

Include participants’ reactions in project

72
Q

What are the types of transparencies when member checking?

A

Restricted transparency
-Show individual participants excerpts of their ‘data’ used for analysis/write-up only

Selective transparency
-Show participants segments of writing that are descriptive of events, behaviours and meanings generated from their collective data

Comprehensive transparency
-Show complete participant representations and researcher explanations to
all participants

73
Q

What are Negative cases?

A

This involves searching for and discussing elements of the data that do not support or appear to contradict patterns or explanations that are emerging from data analysis.

74
Q

What is Fair dealing?

A

Ensure sampling has resulted in diverse perspectives

75
Q

When is thematic analysis appropriate?

A

Detailed textual data

76
Q

What is the aim of Phenomenology analysis?

A

Understanding the essence of a phenomenon

77
Q

Features of phenomenological

research?

A

Epoché (describes the state where all judgments about non-evident matters are suspended)
- Bracketting

Horizontalisation
-Avoiding hierarchies of meaning

Phenomenological psychological reduction
-Consideration of the given from the viewpoint of engaged
human consciousness
- Development of transcendental attitude

78
Q

What is the most common source of data for phenomenological research?

A

Interviews - semi-structured

79
Q

What is a Phenomenological nod?

A

Credibility of phenomenological research is strengthened where
other individuals can recognise the phenomenon described and
the insights provided

80
Q

What is an Interpretative phenomenological

analysis?

A

s an approach to psychological qualitative research with an idiographic focus, which means that it aims to offer insights into how a given person, in a given context, makes sense of a given phenomenon.

81
Q

What is the aim of grounded theory?

A

Generating a theory

82
Q

Define grounded theory

A

Grounded theory (GT) is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the construction of theory through methodic gathering and analysis of data.

83
Q

What are the 3 requirements for grounded theory?

A

Theoretical sensitivity
The ability to conceptualise and formulate theory from the data not from preconcieved ideas

Theoretical sampling

Theoretical saturation

84
Q

Grounded theory according to Glaser?

A 
-Classic’ grounded theory with focus on
understanding the basic social
psychological process underlying a
phenomenon, and developing
grounded hypotheses for testing in
later research
  • Theory emerges from the data
    (inductive)
85
Q

Grounded theory according to Strauss?

A

Reformulated’ grounded theory that
aims to develop and test theory and
provides specific techniques to
achieve this

  • Researcher is a co-constructor
86
Q

Key differences between glaser and strauss grounded theories?

A

Glaser:

  • research question emerges from data
  • concequatlising comes from comparing data and looking for patterns of similarity
  • theory should be allowed to emerge from data
  • Each theory must be saturated
  • Lit review after analysis

Staruss:

  • research question is statement of phenonmene to be studied; before research
  • Coding as individuals first step
  • Preconception and varification apart prossess apart of theory developement
  • saturation not required
  • lit review informs emerging theory
87
Q

Constructionist approach to grounded theory (Charmaz)?

A

Data and theories are not ‘discovered’

Theories are constructed

All theories developed are interpretive

88
Q

What is Constant comparison in ground theory?

A

Constant comparison is the data-analytic process whereby each interpretation and finding is compared with existing findings as it emerges from the data analysis

METHOD

89
Q

Options for grounded theory?

A

Classic (Glaserian) grounded theory

Reformulated (Straussian) grounded theory

Social constructionist (Charmazian) grounded theory

Constant comparative method (diet version)

Mix procedures

90
Q

Types of coding in ground theory?

A

Open coding:
-line by line coding
-Codes ‘emerge’ from data and should be about process rather
than topic

Axial or focused coding:

  • Take recurring codes and apply to large amounts of data
  • Some codes have overriding significance –
  • create categories-

Selective /theorectical coding

91
Q

What is Diagramming in ground theory?

A

A visual representation of relationships between codes

and categories

92
Q

Criteria for judging a quality grounded theory?

A

Fitness:

  • Fit between theory and substantive area
  • Fit of theory to data

Understanding
- Theory must make sense to people involved in substantive area

Generality
- Theory my be applicable to situations beyond the substantive area

Control
- Explanatory power of the theory (must be able to explain and predict change)

Modifiability
- Theory must be modifiable to fit variations that occur

93
Q

Similarities between grounded theory and thematic analysis?

A

The fimilarity with data

Analysis process

Use of data (quotes to illustrate points)

Use of visual representation in analysis (diagramming vs thematic map)

94
Q

Differences between grounded theory and thematic analysis?

A

The overarching aim is to generate theory

Coding

Memoing

Diagramming

Constant comparison

95
Q

What is a case study?

A

a process or record of research into the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time

“an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon with in its real life context, especially when
the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”

96
Q

Procedure of a case study?

A
  1. Approach appropriate?
  2. Identify case/s
  3. Engage in purposive sampling
  4. Data collection
  5. Analysis
97
Q

What is Action research?

A

Action research is either research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a “community of practice” to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.

98
Q

Types of action research?

A

Participatory action research

Community action research

Community-based participatory action research

99
Q

What is participatory Action Research?

A

Participatory action research (PAR) is an approach to research in communities that emphasizes participation and action

100
Q

Characteristics of participatory action research?

A

Participants involved in decisions about ALL stages of research

A process of research, education, and action

Goal of achieving social change

101
Q

When is participatory action research used?

A

where power inequities exist

for example.. indigenous communities, diabilities, woman who have been in prision

102
Q

What are advantages in conducting PAR?

A

Access to otherwise inaccessible contexts, people, and
knowledge

Opportunity to generate meaningful knowledge and action for community

Gives voice to disenfranchised groups

103
Q

What are challenges in conducting PAR

A

Maintaining symmetrical dialectic tension

  • Researcher and co-researchers as equal participants
  • Researcher ‘giving up’ power and status
  • Resultant uncertainty about direction

Maintaining critical awareness despite ambiguity
- Not being critical of all perspectives

Disagreements between PAR members

Maintaining commitment

Unpredictable

Time consuming

Ethics - hard to get informed consent, no confidentiality

104
Q

How does PAR differ from other

methodologies?

A

Explicit role of researcher in seeking social justice and human liberation

Focus on research to enable action

Cyclical critical praxis: data collection, reflection, action

Aim for equal power relationships

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