Exam One Ch. 1-2 Flashcards
Knowledge via superstition
knowledge based on subjective feelings, interpreting random events as non random. “magical” events
Ex: Bad things happen in threes
Knowledge via intuition
knowledge gained without being consciously aware of its source
Ex: I don’t know, its just a gut feeling.
Illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship that does not exist
Knowledge via authority
knowledge gained from those viewed as authority figures
Ex: parents, teachers, celebrities with infomercials
Knowledge via tenacity
knowledge gained from repeated ideas that are stubbornly clung to despite evidence supporting the contrary
Ex: slogan with a product or political campaign
Knowledge via rationalism
knowledge gained through logical reasoning
presented in from of a syllogism (attractive people are good; Nellie is attractive; therefore, Nellie is good.)
Knowledge via empiricism
knowledge gained by objective observations of organisms and events in real world
Ex: “I believe nothing until I see it with my own eyes.”
Dates back to Aristotle
** best paired with rationalism
Knowledge via science
knowledge gained by a combination of empirical methods and logical (rational) reasoning
-collect data (empirical observations) and test hypothesis with the data (assessed with rationalism)
Hypothesis
prediction regarding the outcome of a study involving the potential relationship between at least two variables
-need to be testable
Variable
an event or behavior that has at least two variables
Theory
an organized system of assumptions and principles that are attempts to explain certain phenomena and how they are related
- helps develop framework
- aids in developing the hypothesis
Skeptic
person who questions the validity, authenticity, and truth of something claiming to be factual
Three terms that define science
- systematic empiricism
- publicly verifiable knowledge
- empirically solvable problems
Systematic empiricism
making observations in a systematic manner to test hypothesis and develop or refute a theory
-can help better draw conclusions than simple observations
Publicly verifiable knowledge
presenting research to the public so that it can be observed, replicated, criticized, and tested
-most commonly involves submitting research to a scientific journal for possible publication
Empirically solvable problems
questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques
-if a theory can’t be empirically tested, then scientist aren’t interested
Principles of falsifiability
idea that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that is possible to refute or disconfirm
Psuedoscience
claims that appear to be scientific but that actually violate the criteria of science
Ex: people who believe in ESP, which violates the principle of falsifiability
Basic research
study of psychological issues to seek knowledge for its own sake
- most basic conducted at university or lab level
- not immediate application but knowledge gain
Applied research
study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions
-immediate answers to be applied
Goals of science
- describe behavior
- to predict behavior
- explain behavior
Description of behavior
carefully observing behavior in order to describe it
- learn about behavior and when it occurs
- observe how 2 events are systematically related
Prediction of behavior
identifying factors that indicate when events occur
-knowing level of a variable to predict level of another variable
Explanation of behavior
identifying the causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs
- demonstrates that we can manipulate the factors needed to produce or eliminate the behavior
- must eliminate alternative explanations by impose control over the research situation
Observational method
making observations of human or animal behavior
Naturalistic observation
observing the behavior of humans or animals in their natural habitat
Ex: observing mating behavior of chimps in their natural habitat
Laboratory observation
observing the behavior of humans or animals in a more contrived and controlled situation, usually a lab.
Ex: observing children in a lab playroom to observe behavior
Observation disadvantages
- flexibility to change whats being studied
- description at its basic level
- has little control
Case study method
an in depth study of one or more individuals
- used to develop Freud’s and Piaget’s theories
- involves simply describing individuals being studied
Survey method
questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their responses
- administered in the mail, by phone, online, or in interview
- advantage: study larger groups easier
- disadvantage: whether the sample is representative of all people being studied, but this is solvable through random sampling
Sample
the group of people who participate in a study
Population
all of the people about whom a study is meant to generalize
Random Sampling
a sample achieved through random selection in which each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen
Predictive methods
allow researchers to describe behaviors and predict from one variable to another
-almost never independent variable
Correlational method
method that assesses the degree of relationship between two variables
- two variables simply related in some way
- correlation does not imply causation
Positive relationship
a relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in the other variable
Negative relationship
relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable
Nonequivalent groups
not randomly assigned, volunteered
Quasi-experimental method
research that compares naturally occurring groups of individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated
Ex: alcohol consumption of social club members to non members
Subject/participant variable
characteristic inherent in the subjects that cannot be changed
Quasi-experimental disadvantages
- control is missing
- only measures, doesn’t manipulate
- cant conclude a causal relationship bc of alternative explanations
Alternate explanation
the idea that it is possible that some other uncontrolled extraneous variable may be responsible for observed relationship
Ex: social club members may come from money giving them more money to spend on alcohol
Experimental method
research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship through manipulation of a variable and control of the situation
-allows knowledge of when and why behavior occurs
-controls as much as possible
Ex: cell phone use effect on driving performance
Independent variable
variable in a study that is manipulated by the researcher
- needs to be possible to be randomly assigned
- needs at least two groups or conditions
Dependent variable
variable in a study that is measured by the researcher
Control group
the group of subjects that does not receive any level of the independent variable
Experimental group
the group of subjects that receives some level of the independent variable
Random assignment
assigning subjects to conditions in such a way that every participants has an equal probability of being placed in any condition
-helps gain control and eliminate alternate explanations by minimizing differences between groups
Control
manipulating the independent variable in an experiment and controlling any other extraneous variables that could affect the results of a study
Parsimony
extreme unwillingness to spend money or use resources
String Variable (Levels)
symbols used only for identification purposes
Numeric Variable (Values)
symbols with arithmetic properties
Extraneous variable
any variable other than the independent that influence the dependent
Three research methods
- descriptive
- predictive
- explanatory
Principle A
Beneficence & Nonmaleficence
-welfare of participants
Principle B
Fidelity and Responsibility
- Roles– professional conduct, adaptable methods
- Responsibility– self, colleagues, and public communication
Principle C
Integrity
-honesty, fairness, respectfulness, prudent use of deception
Principle D
Justice
-availability of benefits of research and self competence
Principle E
Respect for People’s rights and dignity
-privacy, confidentiality, self determination and awareness of differences
10 Ethical Standards
- Resolving ethical issues
- Competence
- Human relations
- Privacy and confidentiality
- Advertising and other public statements
- Record keeping and fees
- Education and training
- Research and publication
- Assessment
- Therapy
Institutional Review Board
committee charged with evaluating research projects in which human subjects are used
Evaluation Progress
- completing application form
- detailing the method to be used
- risks/benefits related to participation
- means to maintaining confidentiality
- provided informed consent form
Informed Consent
a form given to individuals before they participate in a study to inform them of the general nature of the study and obtain consent to participate
- keep on file 2-3 years
- broad general statement
- inform of what they will be doing
Informed Consent NoNos
-cant be informed of expected results
“Minimal Risk”
no more physical or emotional harm than daily life
“Risk”
benefits must be substantial
Deception
lying about the true nature of a study bc knowing the true study might effect the performance
-does not violate ethical standards
Debriefing
providing information about the true purpose of a study as soon after the completion data collection as possible
- necessary in all research
- brings back the state of mind from before the study
Safe Guards
- Investigators
- Purpose
- Procedures
- Potential Risks
- Potential Benefits
- Confidentiality & Data Storage
- Participant withdrawal
- Questions about the Research
- Participant Agreement
