Exam One Flashcards
Reciprocal Altruism
We cooperate b/c it is in our best interest. “Enlightened self interest”
Problem with social contract theory
Many states were formed by coercion and conquest, not social consent + agreement
Social Contract
It is rational for self interested individuals to join together and submit to rule of law to ensure cooperation
Enlightened Self Interest
Learning how to do good in order to receive good
Ethical Egoism
Normative theory about what we OUGHT to do. Says everyone ought to be driven by self interests
Just b/c a person is motivated by his self interests (descriptive)
Do we tell him he ought to be? (Normative - is/ought and naturalistic fallacy)
We cannot derive the VALUE of ethical egoism from
The FACT of psychological egoism
Psychological Egoism
Descriptive theory that says people always act out of self interests, always act selfishly
Does psychological egoism mean people always do what’s in their best interests?
Absolutely not. But they often want to.
Weakness of Will
We often know what the right thing to do is but don’t do it anyway
Friendly Egoist
Shows care or concern to get what he wants. Does good deeds to get things in return.
A strong version of Psychological Egoism says
People can ONLY act in their best interests
Can we prove psychological egoism?
Not really. It’s very difficult to prove intent. For example, does altruism exist if someone makes an anonymous donation?
The Naturalistic Fallacy says
Just because something IS natural doesn’t mean we OUGHT to do it or that it is RIGHT.
An “ought” is what kind of theory?
Normative
An “is” is what kind of statement?
Descriptive
Is it easy to define when a social contract is formed?
While there are key moments that seem influential, for example American Constitution signing, many things go into it so not easy
Contractarianism or contractualism
An attempt to explain how and why egoists agree to moral principles, not so much the law.
Divine command theory
A central religious figure doles out instructions, rules, morals, etc
Fundamentalism
Divine command theory with absolutely no room for deviation or interpretation
Thomas Hobbes also said
Weak individuals can band together to overpower strong individuals
Thomas Hobbes
17th century philo said individuals are self interested. Remember “Hobbes people only care about their own jobs”
Thomas Hobbes said about equally powerful individuals
That conflict arises when they all want the same thing
Saying to remember Thomas Hobbes
Selfish people fighting over jobs, but social contract theory and deals works that out
David Gauthier
Similar to Thomas Hobbes, said rational, self interested parties would reconize the need for mutual restraint.
John Rawls
Similar to Thomas Hobbes, said if we had a “veil of ignorance” which excludes favoritism we’d have as system which was fair to all
Laissez-Faire Capitalism
Argues self interest (egoism) is the best economic motivator. If no profit to be made, no motivation
Not all agree with Laissez-faire because
Wealth and opportunity isn’t always distributed evenly
Most normative theories emphasize some form of
Impartiality. For example, utilitarianism, Kantian deontology. natural law. Impartiality is connected to ideas of justic, fairness, equality .
The basic idea in making moral judgments is we should
attempt to be unbiased, neutral, or disinterested. In those lights it would be wrong to make exceptions for our selves.
Commonsense morality
“Don’t cheat” “Don’t lie” etc and values of love, compassion and care
What typre of behavior do most religions advocate?
Altruism
An opponent of egoism might say
Selfish behavior is never good for society and ultimately the selfish individual
A proponent of egoism might say
Worrying too much about being fair can create weakness, indecision, and being more self centered can create better results, more happiness, etc.
Care ethics
Advocates for all people to care for others, not just woman. Feminist concern over masculine detachment from care.
Virginia Held
Remember as “Virginia held a baby because she used care ethics”. She said we all have a relationship and responsibility to care for others, not a choice for anyone including masculinity
Lisa Tessman
Is a care ethicist who says we need to bridge or accept both partial and impartial concern. It’s normal for a mother to be partial to caring for her own kids while being impartial - altruistic about helping students or strangers
Reasons to be moral
Many. Social lives are better. Avoids conflict. Avoids punishment. Simply noble, self respect, dignity.
Natural law says this about moral order
It exists. There is a structure in reality that relies on it.
John Stuart Mill said one person’s happiness…
counts exactly as much as every other person’s and this is a moral truth.
Deontological contrasts with
Utilitarian
Utilitarian focus on
The greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
Deontology focus on
Duty and what makes us WORTHY of happiness
The Stoics were
Deontologists
Kant said to focus on
Not what makes us happy but what makes us worthy of happiness.
Kant background
Immanuel Kant, German, 1724-1804. Strong believer in Enlightenment
The categorical imperative
Kant’s basic idea of moral law such as “Always treat humanity never as a means but always as an end.”
Kant is criticized for
failing to challenge the racist and sexist assumptions of his time. He was Eurocentric, perhaps misogynistic
Abraham and Isaac story…
Illustrates divine command ethics to the extreme of being told to kill his own sone. Kant said this was in violation of moral duties
The Stoics said the key to
morality and happiness is internal, not external. Duty is its own reward.
Stoic Roman emperor
Marcus Aurelius
Basic idea of Stoicism
We can control our own intentions and actions, even when we cannot control consequences or external circumstances,
Deontology today relates to
Human rights.
Two main questions Kant believed philosopher should address
What can I know? What ought I to do?
Kant would focus on the
Moral worth of an act versus consequences of it. He called this “good will”
Was Kant a relativist?
No way. He believed there is a right and wrong thing to do, no variations or personal interpretations
Kant believed the ability to act for moral reasons or motives
Gives human beings dignity and worth.
Hypothetical imperative
Kantian. A simple “ought”, not a moral ought. For example, if I want to get there early I OUGHT to leave early.
Categorical imperative
A universal law according to Kant. A maxim. Undeniable.
Moral obligation is to
Categorical imperative (Kant)
First criteria of categorical imperative
If I can will it as a universal law. In other words, if I would have all people do it, then it is a categorical imperative. Telling the truth versus lying, for example.
The second criteria of categorical imperative
If it treats people as an ends, not means. Persons should be treated as having value in themselves, not just instrumental value. “Rational beings”
Kingdom of Ends
Kant - community of rational persons in which all persons are authors as well as subjects of moral law
Kant believed Moral Obligation is
Real and strictly binding
Was Kant advocating duty according to a particular society?
No, other than concerns he might have been Eurocentric in his subconscious thinking. Otherwise he advocated that each person figure out the right thing to do.
Absolutism
Is an extreme form of objectivism. No margin for error, no variations.
Morality is ground in the ways
that we are alike as persons, not the ways we are different.
What Kant said about emotions
We shouldn’t let them rule us. We must be rational beings.
Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime
1764 book by Kant that said women couldn;t attain the highest level of moral and aesthetic development.
David Hume
17th century philosopher, comtemporary of Bentham and Adam Smith. The Treatise. Explored whether natural created an ought.
One criticism of Kant
Critics will argue that by focusing on the abstract logic of morality, as Kant does, he turns a blind eye to the inequality and oppression of the real world.
Charles Mills
Black American philosopher early 1900s who advocated between relativism and objectivism
Perfect Duties
Kant again. Absolute. For example, do not lie. Duties of justice
Imperfect duties
Kant. Moral obligations with some latitude. Should pursue, but not as fervently as perfect duties.
JD Ross
Sometimes there is a conflict of moral duties. Prima Facie. Then consider which is more important.
Prima Facie
JD Ross, conflict or moral duties arises. Must choose which is more important - prima facie = unconditional
What is Enlightenment
Kant essay that said “argue as much as you like, but then obey”
Theory of Justice
John Rawls “natural duties”. He promoted the idea of justice as fairness.
A set of values or principles held by groups or individuals
Ethics
Philosophical ethics asks
If any particular set of values or beliefs are better than others
Ethics is a branch of and also called
Philosophy / moral philosopy
Epistemology
Study of knowledge
Normative
What is good? What is bad?
Metaethical
Does good exist? Does bad exist?
Relativism
There is on one single answer to moral questions. Many interpretations exist and can be good simultaneously
Utilitarianism
Promoting the most good for the most people
Natural law
Moral laws/ethics are found in nature
Virtue ethics
Focus on character traits and good habits
Hume’s Law
David Hume said you cannot derive an “ought” merely on the basis of an “is”
The naturalistic fallacy
GE Moore. Assuming just because something occurs “naturally” (or ordinarily) that it’s good and right
GE Moore
Naturalistic fallacy which is “more” of a problem than you think it is
More of a problem than you think it is
Naturalistic fallacy GE Moore
Natural law ethics example
We have anatomy which means we ought to use it whenever we want to.
Sociobiology
EO Wilson (Wilson was playing football during sociobiology class) Human behaviours result from natural selection
EO Wilson
Sociobiology
Selfish Gene
Richard Dawkins. Our genes use altruistic behavior to spread themselves
Richard Dawkins
Selfish gene - our genes use altruistic behavior to spread themselves
Anthropomorphize
Tendency to look at things in human terms.
Intuitionism
Idea that we instinctively know the right thing to do. WD Ross again thinks that we have “crystal clear intuitions” about basic values.
Crystal clear intuition
WD Ross
Emotivism
When we render a judgment of something, we are sharing that view and trying to infuence others. But it also means we pursue goals according to our emotions according to Hume.
Adam Smith
Said we are motivated by natural sympathy for one another under emotivism
Moral realism is very similar to
Objectivism
Objectiivism says
There are ethical facts and moral judgments that supercede our personal subjective views
Famous objectivist
Plato who termed “The Good”
Instrumental goods
Things that are useful as a tool or instrument. Meaning value is derived from what they can do.
Intrinsic goods
Things that are good and valuable in of themselves versus being a tool. For example, life.
Ruse said about morality that it’s
An instrumental good because it’s a tool used to support life and living.
Ad Hominem fallacy
Just because a particular person said it doesn’t make it true
Arguments from analogy
Similar to case precedent. You look at other similar examples to help define view.
An ethical theory is
Systematic exposition of a particular argument or view about the basis of good or right. Reasons or norms for judging acts. And justifications. “I did it because”. THink of it as a ladder.
Ethical theory ladder
Top: basical ethical values
Middle: Principles generated by the theory
Bottom: apply princples generated by the theory to specific situation
Contractarianism
Moral norms come from an agreement among rational parties
Consequentialist or Teleological
Focus on consequences, not reasons
Nonconsequentalist
Doesn’t focus on outcomes but on reasons, ie Deontology
Critical theory
Questioning our theories. Finding contradictions. For example, feminism or Socrates challenging thinking in his time
The Racial Contract
Charles Mills book about how European ethical and political philosophy affected racial politics and oppression in modern European history including colonialism and slavery
Charles Mills
The Racial Contract which pointed out European ethics affected slavery in the modern world
Naomi Zack
Said we need a “critical reading” of traditional moral philosophy due ot Euro influence
Where is religious freedom protected in US?
1st Amendment to Constitution
Eleanor Roosevelt helped forge the
1948 UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Which article of UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Article 18 says everyone has rights and freedoms
Apostasy
Abandoning religion
Many religions
Pluralism
Applicable worldwide
Cosmopolitan
Edict of Tolerism
China 1692
Cosmopolitan
Single moral community not bound by national, cultural, religious traditions
When was the Enlightenment?
17th and 18th centuries
Famousd Enlightenment philosophers
Hume, Lock, Kant, Bentham
Non violence
Ahimsa
Turning away from religion
Apostasy
Value pluralism
Argues there are many conflicting viewpoints and “goods” which cannot be reduced to other goods Golden Rule is one example
Theodices
Arguments for god being all powerful
John Locke
Letter Concerning Toleration argued that the state should tolerate religious dissenters. Force is not effective to produce genuine religious belief
Letter Concerning Toleration
John Locke argument against religious coercion which influenced US separation of church and state
John Rawls
Societies need “overlapping consensus” and “comperehensive” doctrines adoicating agreement in political realm
Paul Kurtz
Remember “it doesn’t hurts to let people believe what they want to believe”. Paul’s Neo-Humanist Manifestor saide everyone has dignity and value which transcends national, ethnic, religious identities
Neo-Humanist Manifesto
Paul Kurts. Said everyone has value regardless of religion, state, ethicity
Challenges of building a global ethical perspective
Many religions. Many secular perspectives. Many different objective and subjective viewpoints. Lack of toleration of others. Fundamentalism, extremism. Capitalism vs communism.
What is the Golden Rule, and why important?
Love our neighbors as ourselves. Treat others as we would want to be treated. Often considered a focal point for the effort to find a global ethic.
What is the problem of evil?
How can an all powerful and benevolent god allow so much pain and suffering in the world, and evil? Free will is often invoked as the explanation, but if god is divine how can there be free will?
What is the humanistic approach to ethics?
Emphasizes humam values, dignity, and well being, advocates ethical decisions based on reason, empathy, compassion
Compassion versus empathy?
Empathy is about feeling for others. Compassion is doing something about it. Acts of support, kindness, etc.
Plato’s dialogue about Socrates and a young man
Euthyphro (remember “Socrates talked to a youth with an afro - youth-y-fro”). Socrates asks whether the gods love something because it is good or it is good because the gods love it.
What is the main point of Euthyphro?
To critically examine religious beliefs. In this case that it is impossible to say something is pious because the gods love it, or the gods love something because it is pious. In the former, the dogs would have no control over what is pious in order to define whether they love it for being pious. That would contradict that the gods define what is pious. In the latter the gods may have varying opinions, therefore something couldn’t be loved or pious simply because the gods love it because they all don’t.
Letter to a Christian Nation
By Sam Harris, claims we need to move past religion which is often “lying about the natural of reality” and find global agreements. The difference between science and religion doesn’t require excluding ethical intuitions and experience from conversation about the world.
Religion and Truth
Mohandas Gandhi. “The purer I try to become the nearer to God I feel myself to be.” Discussion about what God is and whether he exists which he believes he does. “To me God is Truth and Love…God is conscience.” Discusses ahimsa. He concludes 1) All religions are true 2) all religions have some error in them 3) all religions are almost as dear to me as Hinduism
Brotherly Love
Eleanor Roosevelt discussion about the need for nations ot acknowledge the power of love above all other power.
Cultural competence
Understanding perspectives of other cultures
Descriptive ethical relativism
The Descriptive claim that there are different ideas about values.
“Moore natural”
GE Moore - the Naturalistic Fallacy
Hint for Charles Mills
The slaves worked in the sugar mills.
Hint: I know JD Ross’s face because I met him at NBAA
Prima Facie - moral obligations
