Exam II Material

Question 1

A possible reason for reduced cortical thickness in schizophrenia patients is
a. Reduced myelination in the cortex
b. Reduced interneuron development in the cortex
c. Excessive excitatory pruning
d. All of the above

Answer 1

d. All of the above

Question 2

Outer radiate white matter is involved in the pathophysiology of which order?

Depression
Autism
Addiction
ADHD
Schizophrenia

Answer 2

Autism

Question 3

Which is a pathophysiological marker of autism?

Enlarged ventricles
Reduced brain volume
Thickened cortex
Spinal lesions

Answer 3

Thickened cortex

Question 4

Autism is associated with a cortical microstructure characterized by

Abnormally low-density minicolumns
Abnormally high density of minicolumns
Reduced cell density
Impaired myelin formation

Answer 4

Abnormally high density of minicolumns

Question 5

Autism is associated with what white matter abnormalities?

Decreased radiate white matter
Increased radiate white matter
Thickened corpus callosum
Abnormally small cerebellum

Answer 5

Increased radiate white matter

Question 6

Autism symptomology is characterized by

Acute awareness of others
Exceptional ability in math
Lacking or absent theory of mind
Blindness

Answer 6

Lacking or absent theory of mind

Question 7

Autism appears to be associated with what white matter structural differences compared to controls?

Enhanced distance but poor local cortical connectivity

Enhanced distant and enhanced local cortical connectivity

Enhanced local and enhanced distant cortical connectivity

Enhanced local and poor distant cortical connectivity

Answer 7

Enhanced local and poor distant cortical connectivity

Question 8

An example of a positive symptom in schizophrenia is

Depression
Catatonia
Hallucinations
Anhedonia

Answer 8

Hallucinations

Question 9

The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia was developed because

The discovery that neuroleptics and antipsychotics reduced symptoms

The discovery that amphetamines caused symptoms

The discovery that neuroleptics and antipsychotics caused symptoms

Both A and B

Answer 9

Both A and B

Question 10

In Schizophrenia, the positive symptoms are likely to result from
a. Increased dopamine in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway
b. Decreased dopamine in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway
c. Increase dopamine in the mesocortical dopamine pathway
d. Decreased dopamine in the mesocortical dopamine pathway

Answer 10

a. Increased dopamine in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway

Question 11

In Schizophrenia, the negative symptoms are likely to result from
a. Increased dopamine in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway
b. Decreased dopamine in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway
c. Increase dopamine in the mesocortical dopamine pathway
d. Decreased dopamine in the mesocortical dopamine pathway

Answer 11

d. Decreased dopamine in the mesocortical dopamine pathway

Question 12

The Gs protein-coupled receptor pathway functions by
a. Increasing PKC activation
b. Decreasing Adenylyl cyclase activity
c. Decreasing cAMP concentration
d. Increasing PKA activity

Answer 12

a. Increasing PKC activation

Question 13

Which is not a feature of drug abuse or dependence?
a. Tolerance
b. Withdrawal
c. Sensitization
d. Toxicity

Answer 13

d. Toxicity

Question 14

Bottom-up attention differs from top-down attention in that bottom-up attention is
a. The stimulus, like your homework, that you know needs your attention so you put effort into keeping with it
b. The distracting stimulus that takes you away from the above goals
c. Mediated largely by the frontal cortex
d. Has no evolutionary role in our development as a species

Answer 14

b. The distracting stimulus that takes you away from the above goals

Question 15

The Stroop test, designed to assay inhibition of inappropriate response, asks the participants to
a. Name of the color a word is written in
b. Count the number of words on the screen
c. Read a sentence
d. Start a revolution

Answer 15

a. Name of the color a word is written in

Question 16

17. Which brain region is identified in imaging studies to be under-activated in individuals with ADHD when inhibiting responses during the Stroop test?
    a. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
    b. Cerebellum
    c. Dorsal anterior midcingulate cortex
    d. Inferior vena cava

Answer 16

c. Dorsal anterior midcingulate cortex

Question 17

Which of the following is a likely candidate gene for ADHD?
a. DAT1
b. The serotonin hydroxylase enzyme
c. Estrogen receptor alpha
d. ADHD

Answer 17

a. DAT1

Question 18

The gene identified in question 18 above has a function most related to which neurotransmitter’s function?
a. Serotonin
b. Dopamine
c. Epinephrine
d. PCP

Answer 18

b. Dopamine

Question 19

Which receptor is closely related to addiction?
a. DA
b. D1
c. 5HTT
d. 5HT1a

Answer 19

b. D1

Question 20

Characterize the receptor identified in the previous question
a. Ionotropic
b. Metabotropic
c. Zetatropic
d. Coprophagic

Answer 20

b. Metabotropic

Question 21

The role of the Hippocampus in the stress response is
a. To activate the HPA axis
b. To inhibit the HPA axis
c. To activate the HPG axis
d. To inhibit the HPG axis

Answer 21

b. To inhibit the HPA axis

Question 22

The monoamine hypothesis of depression states that
a. Increasing the monoamine concentration in the brain should cause depression
b. Increasing monoamine concentration in the brain should reduce depression
c. Depression results from increased serotonin concentration
d. Depression results in decreased acetylcholine concentration

Answer 22

b. Increasing monoamine concentration in the brain should reduce depression

Question 23

Monoamine oxidase
a. Is an important enzyme that helps make dopamine
b. Is an important enzyme that breaks down monoamines
c. Is an important enzyme that helps to make monoamines
d. Is an important enzyme that helps make serotonin

Answer 23

a. Is an important enzyme that helps make dopamine

Question 24

Resiliency, or resistance to depression, induced by the social defeat test is associated with
a. Up-regulation of potassium channels in the VTA to reduce the firing rate
b. Increase of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus
c. Loss of feeling in the limbs
d. Intracranial self-stimulation

Answer 24

a. Up-regulation of potassium channels in the VTA to reduce the firing rate

Question 25

Resiliency associated with learned helplessness differs from social defeat in that a. Involves delta Fos B b. It involves VTA firing rate c. It cannot be measured using intracranial self-stimulation d. Its just not as interesting

Answer 25

a. Involves delta Fos B

Question 26

The delay in treatment efficacy for depression by SSRIs is associated with a. Raphe nucleus down-regulating 5HT1a receptors b. The length of time it takes for serotonin to actually build up in synapses c. Structural changes in the hippocampus including neurogenesis d. The patient’s motivation to get better

Answer 26

c. Structural changes in the hippocampus including neurogenesis

Question 27

What type of hormone is linked to depression and the HPA axis? a. Adrenalin b. Glucocorticoids c. Epinephrine d. Testosterone

Answer 27

a. Adrenalin

Question 28

In response to HPA activation, which of the following hormones helps mediate the stress response? a. Cholesterol b. Testosterone c. Cortisol ( a glucocorticoid) d. Serotonin (a monoamine)

Answer 28

c. Cortisol ( a glucocorticoid)

Question 29

The delay in treatment efficacy for depression by SSRIs is associated with a. Raphe nucleus down-regulates 5HT la receptors.
 b. The length of time it takes for serotonin to actually build up in synapses.
 c. Structural changes in the hippocampus including neurogenesis.
 d. The patient's motivation to "get better."

Answer 29

c. Structural changes in the hippocampus including neurogenesis.


Question 30

What is the effect of blocking neurogenesis? a. It can cause depression b. It can block relief from depression by SSRIs c. It can cause hippocampal atrophy d. All of the above

Answer 30

b. It can block relief from depression by SSRIs c. It can cause hippocampal atrophy d. All of the above

Question 31

Taking SSRIs for depression is associated with a. Increased synaptic serotonin concentration b. Decreased symptoms of depression c. Increased BDNF expression d. All of the above

Answer 31

d. All of the above

Question 32

Blocking forebrain BDNF a. Causes depression b. Blocks recovery from depression c. Cures depression d. All of the above

Answer 32

b. Blocks recovery from depression

Question 33

The Gs protein-coupled receptor pathway functions in the NAc medium spiny neurons most directly by a. Increasing PKC activation b. Decreasing Adenylyl cyclase activity
 c. Decreasing cAMP concentration
 d. Increasing PKA activity

Answer 33

d. Increasing PKA activity

Question 34

Which is not a feature of drug abuse or dependence? a. Tolerance b. Withdrawal c. Sensitization d. Toxicity

Answer 34

d. Toxicity

Question 35

Which is a way that a synapse may adjust to compensate for overstimulation to make the synapse less sensitive? a. Phosphorylation of AMPA receptors b. NMDA activation by PKA c. Receptor internalization d. Magnesium ejection and calcium influx e. All of the above

Answer 35

c. Receptor internalization

Question 36

Which is a way that a synapse may adjust to make a synapse more responsive or sensitive? a. Phosphorylation of AMPA receptors b. NMDA activation by PKA c. Receptor insertion d. Magnesium ejection and calcium influx e. All of the above

Answer 36

e. All of the above

Question 37

Which neurotransmitter is most associated with the experience of reward a. Glutamate b. Serotonin c. Norepinephrine d. GABA

Answer 37

d. GABA

Question 38

An SSRI modulates a specific neurotransmitter’s function by a. Increasing its release b. Decreasing its release c. Blocking its reuptake d. Blocking its degradation

Answer 38

c. Blocking its reuptake

Question 39

Which is a way that a synapse may adjust to compensate for overstimulation to make the synapse less sensitive? a. Phosphorylation of AMPA receptors b. NMDA activation by PKA c. Receptor internalization d. Magnesium ejection and calcium influx

Answer 39

c. Receptor internalization

Question 40

The role of the Hippocampus in the stress response is a. To activate the HPA axis b. To inhibit the HPA axis c. To activate the HPG axis d. To inhibit the HPG axis

Answer 40

b. To inhibit the HPA axis

Question 41

The monoamine hypothesis of depression states that a. Increasing monoamine concentration in the brain should cause depression b. Increasing monoamine concentration in the brain should reduce depression c. Depression results from increased serotonin concentration d. Depression results from decreased acetylcholine concentration

Answer 41

b. Increasing monoamine concentration in the brain should reduce depression

Question 42

The need to keep taking a drug in order to avoid experiencing negative effects is called a. Tolerance b. Dependence c. Withdrawl d. Craving

Answer 42

b. Dependence

Question 43

Which of the following is a core symptom of Autism spectrum disorder? a. Hyperactivity b. Impaired social interaction c. Depression d. Psychosis

Answer 43

b. Impaired social interaction

Question 44

Structural MRI studies in autism have found a. Smaller overall brain volume b. Corpus callosum enlargement c. Cortical thinning d. Increased gray matter

Answer 44

d. Increased gray matter

Question 45

Which is a pathophysiological marker of autism a. Enlarger ventricles b. Reduced brain volume c. Thickened cortex d. Spinal lesions

Answer 45

c. Thickened cortex

Question 46

Autism is associated with cortical microstructure characterized by a. Abnormally low density of minicolumns b. Abnormally high density of minicolumns c. Reduced cell density

Answer 46

b. Abnormally high density of minicolumns

Question 47

Autism symptomology is characterized by a. Acute awareness of others b. Exceptional ability in math c. Lack absent theory of mind d. Blindness

Answer 47

c. Lack absent theory of mind

Question 48

Identify the difference between top-down and bottom-up attention

Answer 48

Top down attention refers to the voluntary, goal-driven process of focusing on specific information based on prior knowledge and expectations, while bottom-up attention is the involuntary shift of focus to stimuli that are highly salient in the environment, like a sudden loud noise or bright color regarless of current expectations

Question 49

Describe two pathopsychological hallmarks of autism and what symptoms they have been hypothesized to underlie

Answer 49

Autism patients had higher activation of left posterior temporal gyris (wernicke) hindering speech production. Relatively lower activation of the left inferior gyrus (broca) hindering language comprehension. Outer radiate white matter

Question 50

Describe two pathopsychological hallmarks of schizophrenia

Answer 50

Enlarge ventricles and gray matter loss

Question 51

List and very briefly describe the phases of onset of schizophrenia

Answer 51

Premorbid phase: subtle childhood differences in cognition, motor development, or social functioning Prodromal phase: gradual emergence of subtle changes, typically in adolescence Active Phase: full emergence of positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions Recovery Phase: acute symptoms begin to subside with treatment and gradually return to baseline functioning Residual Phase: long-term pattern emerges may have persistent negative symptoms and cognitive deficits

Question 52

Describe the difference between physiological dependence and psychological dependence

Answer 52

Physiological dependence is the presence of physical withdrawal symptoms after stopping drug use (i.e. shakes). Psychological dependence is the need to take a drug to reduce negative moods that are caused by stopping drug use.

Question 53

Briefly describe the HPA axis

Answer 53

The HPA axis becomes activated due to prolonged threats. It is almost entirely hormonal. The hippocampus activated the paraventricular nucleus of which releases corticotrophin release hormone to the anterior pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary gland release adrenal corticotrophin hormone to the adrenal gland and the adrenal gland releases glucoticoids. Glucocorticoids are released throughout the body to decrease digestion, decrease need to reproduce.

Question 54

Describe the Sally-Anne test and what it test for and how it test for it

Answer 54

The Sally-Anne test is used to test for the Theory of the Mind. The scenario is about a character sally hiding a marble in a basket, sadly leaving, and Anne removing the marble from the basket and hiding it in a box. Sally does not know that the ball was moved. Children are asked to answer where will Sally look for the ball and children with autism are not able to ascribe Sally’s perspective.

Question 55

Describe the difference between pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic tolerance

Answer 55

Pharmacodynamic tolerance is the downregulation of receptors due to chronic or continued presence of drugs. Pharmacokinetic is the response to chronic or continued drug use. Like a person’s liver increase enzyme production to metabolize the drug

Question 56

Briefly, but completely describe the interaction between dopamine and glutamate in the nucleus accumbens after cocaine use (start with the activation of PKA and finish with the transcription of delta FosB)

Answer 56

Cocaine-induced dopamine release activates Protein Kinase A (PKA), leading to an increase in extracellular dopamine levels and stimulation of D1-like dopamine receptors on postsynaptic neurons in the nucleus accumbens. This stimulates D1-like dopamine receptors, enhancing neuroplasticity and reward processing. PKA phosphorylates downstream targets, such as cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), enhancing the transcription of genes critical for neuronal adaptation and plasticity. Additionally, cocaine increases glutamate release from presynaptic terminals, binding to ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors on postsynaptic neurons, promoting synaptic strengthening. The activation of PKA and other signaling pathways leads to the expression of immediate early genes, including delta FosB, a transcription factor that accumulates in response to repeated cocaine exposure. This accumulation induces the transcription of target genes involved in synaptic plasticity, neuronal survival, and adaptation to repeated drug exposure, contributing to long-term changes in the brain's reward circuitry associated with addiction.

Question 57

What neurobiological systems cause the symptoms observed in schizophrenia(both sets)? Describe the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia and reconcile these two sets of symptoms.

Answer 57

The positive and negative symptoms of depression which include dopamine and glutamate dysfunction. The glutamate hypothesis helps reconcile these seemingly contradictory dopamine abnormalities. Primary deficit is NMDA receptor hypofunction on GABA neurons. This reduces inhibitory tone leading to excessive glutamate release in some circuits and reduced glutamate signaling in others. Glutamate abnormalities then cause disinhibition of mesolimbic dopamine and reduces mesocortical dopamine. This model explains how a single underlying pathology can produce both dopamine excess in subcortical regions and dopamine deficits in cortical regions generating the full spectrum of symptoms.

Question 58

Describe the role of the hippocampus and neurogenesis in depression.

Answer 58

* Neurogenesis hypothesis of depression postulated that a decrease in new granule cells related to the pathophysiology of depression and recovery of neurogenesis is related to treatment * Clinical observations of decreased hippocampal volume led to the discovery and study of DG

Question 59

Describe the HPA axis and its role in depression; how might this relate to the hippocampus?

Answer 59

* The hippocampus has high levels of glucocorticoid receptors * Chronic activation of the HPA axis leads to chronic activation of the glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors * This leads to a decrease in action on the hippocampus and the inability of the hippocampus to negative feedback on the HPA axis

Question 60

What factors are involved in making resilience to depression more likely? Be sure to discuss the animal models used and what mechanisms have been identified that mediate resilience too.

Answer 60

Refers to the capacity of an individual to avoid negative social, psychological, and biological consequences of extreme stress Recent reports indicate that resilience represents an active process rather than the absence of pathological responses. Some examples of this was shown in the reward pathway identified by studies done on mice, delta Fos B accumulation in the nucleus accumbens and HPA Axis regulation. Resilience was also shown in the learned helplessness modeled by mice. Some key mechanisms are the stress response system and neurotrophic factors

Question 61

Describe the interaction between dopamine and glutamate in the nucleus accumbens after cocaine use (identified in class as the early or short-term effects of cocaine)

Answer 61

Cocaine and other drugs of addiction have distinct phases of action Short term – chemical changes that lead to the subjective “high” Intermediate term: changes in gene expression Long-term: changes in nerve cell structure Dopamine in the NAc acts on D1 Receptors D1 Glutamate Receptors enhance glutamate signaling in the NAc

Question 62

Describe the role of the Hippocampus in depression

Answer 62

* hippocampus is one of the biggest regions involved in depression not yet mentioned * structural studies indicate reduced volume of the hippocampus in individuals with depression * functional studies with fMRI and PET implicate the amygdala and cingulate * nucleus accumbens implicated with results of deep brain stimulation s as well as the VTA * some of these structures appear to play specific roles in the presentation of depression

Question 63

Diagram the reward pathway as described in Kandel and Schwartz. There are five brain regions you need to include. Be sure to draw all pathways and indicate the direction (from what structure to what structure) as well as what the pathway releases neurotransmitters.

Answer 63