Exam I: General Concepts Flashcards
Contralateral – Ipsilateral
Used in terms of neurons
Contralateral: neuron starting on one side and switching to the opposite side
Ipsilateral: neuron continuing to run on the same side
Dorsal Body Cavities
Cranial and Vertebral
posterior
Ventral Body Cavities
Thoracic and Abdominopelvic separated by the diaphragm
Thoracic contains: pleural, mediastinum, pericardial, and superior mediastinum
Abdominopelvic contains: abdominal and pelvic
Serous Membranes
Two membrane system (although only made of one membrane like the balloon example)
Parietal: lines the cavity wall
Visceral: lines the organ
Serous: fluid in between the parietal and visceral
Pericardial: Heart
Pleural: Lungs
Peritoneal: Abdominal
Retroperitoneal: Behind the abdomen
Cephalic
head
Frontal
forehead
Orbital
eye
Buccal
cheek
Mental
chin
Nasal
nose
Oral
mouth
Cervical
neck
Deltoid
shoulder
Axillary
armpit
Brachial
arm
Antebrachial
forearm
Antecubital
front of elbow
Coxal
hip
Carpal
wrist
Palmar
palm
Digital
finger
Femoral
thigh
Patellar
knee
Crural
leg
Pes/Pedal
foot
Tarsal
ankle
Dorsum of the foot
top of the foot
Pubic
pubic area
Inguinal
groin
Pelvic
pelvis area
Abdominal
abdomen
Mammary
breast
part of thoracic section
Pectoral
chest
part of thoracic section
Sternal
sternum
part of thoracic section
Otic
ear
Occipital
back of head
Vertebral
spinal column
Olecranal
elbow
Sacral
sacrum
Gluteal
buttock
Dorsum of the hand
top of the hand
Calcaneal
heel
Popliteal
back of the knee
Perineal
anything between the legs; anus, reproductive structures
Lumbar
lower back
Functions of the Skeletal System
- Supports: soft tissues and provides attachment for skeletal muscles
- Protects: internal organs
- Movement: assists in movement with skeletal muscles
- Storage: store and releases minerals
- Blood Cell Production (Hematopoiesis): bone marrow gives rise to blood cells; spleen and liver involved
Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton
Axial: skull, vertebrae, and ribs
Appendicular: appendages, pelvis
Long, Short, Flat, Irregular, and Sesamoid Bones
Long Bones: greater length than width
Short Bones: cube-shaped, equal in length and width
Flat Bones: thin and composed of two nearly parallel plate of compact bone
Irregular Bones: cannot be placed into any other group; complex shapes.
Sesamoid Bones: small nodules of bone that are found in certain tendons, and not really connected to other bones ex. patella
Parts of a Long Bone
Diaphysis- middle/shaft
Epiphysis- end of bone
Metaphysis- between the diaphysis and epiphysis
Medullary Cavity- contains the spongy bone/blood vessels (can be red or yellow marrow)
Endosteum- lining the inside of the bone/medullary cavity
Periosteum- covering the outside of the bone
Articular Cartilage- cartilage outside of the epiphysis to decrease friction between sliding bones
Cells of Bone
Osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which then become surrounded in the secreted matrix and become osteocytes
Monocytes (phagocytic) differentiate into osteoclasts, which are made of fused marrow cells
Intramembranous Ossification
Occurs when osteoblasts produce bones of the skull
Mesenchymal models of bones undergo ossification
1. Start in mesenchymal tissue where osteoblasts are converting to osteocytes once surrounded by the hardened matrix
2. Other osteoblasts spread out into the surrounding mesenchymal tissue to ossify it
3. Cartilage and mesenchymal tissue don’t need blood/vasculature, but once enough bone formed, then new vessel formation to supply it with blood/nutrients
4. Once the bones are finished, we have compact and trabecular bone right in the center with blood vessels
5. Outside have periosteum with osteoprogenitor cells in case need them to differentiate
Endochondrial Ossification
Forms from cartilage models via hyaline cartilage
Bone forms in ossification centers
1. Invasion of cartilage with blood vessels so cells can enter= primary ossification center with bone collar surrounding it
2. Once the cartilage is gone, the blood vessel in the primary ossification center wants to expand towards the ends- epiphysis have secondary ossification centers and we start to form the medullary cavity
3. We have the epiphyseal plate between the primary and secondary ossification centers so the bone can continue to grow
4. Once the epiphyseal plates divides to its extent, then it disappears and develops into a solid line
Interstitial vs. Appositional Bone Growth
Interstitial: growth occurs longitudinally
Appositional: widening of bone using osteoblasts and osteoclasts to expand the shaft and increase the diameter of the medullary cavity
Blood Supply and Innervation of Bone
Arteries: periosteal, nutrient, epiphyseal, and metaphyseal
Nutrient arteryr goes in the medullary cavity that was in the primary ossification center
Metaphyseal and nutrient arteries make a connection in order to supply enough blood
Nerves: pain fibers to periosteum, and vasomotor fibers to blood vessels (control the amount of blood supply to the bones by constriction or dilation
Types of Movement
- Synarthrosis: immovable joint
- Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable joint
- Diarthrosis: freely movable joint
Fibrous Joints
- Strengthen sutures
- Gomphosis: periodontal membrane is the fibrous connection between the tooth and the bone
- Syndesmosis: slightly movable joint in which the tibia and fibula are joined together by a membrane of fibrous connective tissue running between the bones
Uniaxial Synovial Joints
moving in one plane
- Gliding/Planar- short bones within the hand (carpal bones)
- Pivot- vertebral column with skull (shake head “no”)
- Hinge- knee, elbow, fingers, toes; flex or extend
Biaxial Synovial Joints
Two planes of movement
1.. Condyloid- ovoid articular structure; metacarpal bones in the hand coming back and attaching to metacarpal bones in the wrist; flexion, extention, and medial
- Saddle- opposing surfaces are reciprocally concave-convex; 1st metacarpal bones with the carpal bones, especially in thumb
- Ball and Socket- arm and shoulder joint
Body Planes
Frontal/Coronal: divides anterior from posterior
Sagittal: divides body right from left
Transverse: divides body top from bottom
Acromial
shoulder blade/scapula
Hallux
Big toe
Pollux
Thumb
Fibular
lateral part of the leg
Cephalic
towards the head
Sural
back of the leg/calf; made of gastrocnemius and soleus
Cartilaginous Joints
- Synchondroses: connecting medium is hyaline cartilage like the epiphyseal plate
- Symphyses: fibrocartilaginous fusion between two bones such as the pubic symphyses or intervertebral disc
Synovial Joints
Gets the most movement
Every synovial joint will have: joint capsule made of the synovial membrane which produces synovial fluid, and fibrous membrane, which covers the whole joint and provides strength
Articular cavity: surrounding the joint capsule on both sides of the cavity we will have cartilage; cavity contains the synovial fluid
Articular disc: look like wedges, ring, or disc of cartilage; area of cartilage for joint to sit on (minicus for example)
Fat pad: inside the capsule to cushion the joint so we don’t irritate the structures beneath it
Tendons with sheath around them (have synovial sheath with synovial fluid to slide back and forth); irritation = tendonitis
Bursa: a membrane bound structure filled with synovial fluid; not the same fluid as the one in the joint to act as a cushion; if we irritate the bursa – bursitis
Bicondylar Joints
Once we add more plane of movement, more problems can occur because less stability
Shoulders, hips, etc.
Formed by two convex condyles that articulate with a concave or flat surface
Knee joint- sit in concave areas
Still have one axis, but have limited rotation around a second axis
Multiaxial Synovial JointsBall-and-Socket
Many planes and most movement with a price…. Less stability
Shoulders and hips
Support the structure with many muscles and tendons to add stability
Collateral Circulation and Anastromosis
Collateral circulation- multiple lines of blood coming into the same area
Anastramosis: main vessels coming down and fuse
Especially larger joints we see these things– if we do damage to one vessel, we have other ones to back it up/supply blood
Extension vs. Flexion
Flexion: decreasing the angle between the two bones
Extension: increasing the angle between the two bones
Past 180: hyperextension – can do that with your neck
Abduction vs. Adduction
Adduction: adding to the body– bringing the arm and bringing it to the body
Abduction: moving the arm away, or body part away– subtracting from the body
Circumduction
Flexion, entension, adduction, and abduction all blended together
Lateral Flexion
“side bending”
Rotation
Flexed laterally is out and medially is towards the body
Pivoting the arm (humerus)
Dorsiflexion vs. Plantarflexion
Plantarflexion: up on the toes where toes are down and heel is up
Doriflexion: where heel is down and toes are up
When you walk you change between plantar and dorsiflexion continuously
Inversion vs. Eversion
Inversion: soles of feet together so facing each other
Eversion: face soles of the feet outwards
When walking there is slight inversion and eversion
Pronation vs. Supination
Supination: palms are facing down and turn them up
Pronation: palms are facing up and turn them down
Protraction vs. Retraction
Protraction: sticking chin out
Retraction: chin in
Opposition
Pinky to thumb
Layers of Muscle
Fascia is the more important one between muscle and fascia because it interconnects everything
Epimysium: covering of connective tissue that runs and combines with fascia, tendon, and eventually the bone
Perimysium: around a fascicle
Endomysium: around the muscle fiber
Origin, Insertion, and Reference Reversal
Origin: is not moving; end of a muscle that is attached to a fixed bone
Insertion: end of a muscle that is attached to the bone that moves
Reference reversal: switch the use of the muscle/use the muscles in the opposite way
Ligament, Tendon, Aponeurosis
Ligament: attaches bone to bone
Tendon: attachment between muscle and bone; dense regular connective tissue
Aponeurosis: flat tendon such as in the abdomen; are layers of flat broad tendons; are histologically similar to tendons, and are very sparingly supplied with blood vessels and nerves
Naming of Muscles
Muscle action (function)
Specific body region
Muscle attachment: biceps brachii (arm); fibularis (to the fibula), retus capitus major (attaches to the back of the head)
Shape and size: adductor magnus (big muscle); deltoid (shape)
Heads or tendons of origin: quadriceps (4)
Orientation of muscle fibers: how they are running
Prime Mover, Synergist, Fixator, and Antagonist
Prime mover: the muscle that is contributing the most
Synergist: assist the prime mover; don’t play the biggest role but help
Fixator: provides stability
Antagonist: moves the opposite of the prime mover
Motor Unit of a Muscle
There are more muscle cells to neurons ratio
Neuron comes into an area and branches off and goes to multiple muscle cells so when the neuron is excited it will excite every muscle cell that is it in contact with
Types of movements that occur depend on the ratios
Smaller movement have smaller ratios
Fine motor control have more neurons to muscle (instead of 1: 10, its 5:10 for example)
Basic Concepts of Muscles
Movements are performed by GROUPS
Different segments of a muscle can have different actions
Innervated on DEEP surface of belly
Muscle compartments usually share function, attachment, nerves, vessels
Fascia
Two types: superficial and deep
Function: provide strength, compartmentalization, and ease of movement
Example: In the leg there is a thick fascia = compartmentalize the muscles to help with strength and provide easier movement
Composition: ECM, collagen (structure), elastin (elasticity), and reticular (support)
Cells: fibroblasts, adipose (especially superficially), macrophages, and mast cells
- Superficial: broken into (a) superficial (usually the fatty layer especially on abdomen), and (b) deep (membranous)
- Deep investing fascia: very thick, cannot tear it; continuous that runs into the joints and muscles
Deep Fascia Specializations
Fibrous sheath on fingers
Muscle attachment
Neurovascular sheath encased in the fascia
example: carotid nerve sheath in the neck
Retinacula: thick fascia as seen on the hand
Intermuscular septa: divides muscle into sections/compartments
Because it forms compartments, damage can really effect the muscle groups; if blood hemorrhage occurs, there is not a lot of give, so surrounding vessels are closed off from pressure and this causes compartment syndrome and needs fasciectomy to treat it
