EXAM I Endocrine System Flashcards
___ are chemicals secreted by a cell that affects the functions of other cells
hormones
many hormones are derived from ___ that can easily cross the cell membrane
steroids
what are three categories of steroid hormones?
sex, corticosteroids, and mineralocorticoids
what are 3 sex hormones?
estrogen, progesterone, testosterone
what is an example of a corticosteroid? where is it produced?
cortisol, produced in the adrenal cortex
what is an example of a mineralocorticoid? where is it produced?
aldosterone, produced in the adrenal cortex
what are non-steroid hormones made of? can they cross the cell membrane?
they are made of amino acids or proteins, and cannot cross the cell membrane with ease
non-steroid hormones bind to ___. what is usually activated by this complex?
- receptors on the surface of cells
- g-protein is usually activated by the hormone-receptor complex
prostaglandins are ___ hormones, derived from ___
- local
- lipid molecules
prostaglandins typically do not travel in the ___ because ___
- blood stream
- target tissues are located close by
prostaglandins are produced by organs such as ___
kidneys, uterus, heart, brain, and stomach
the basic signal pathway involves a ___ that binds to a ___, which activates ___, which alter ___, creating a ___
- signal molecule
- receptor protein
- intracellular signal molecules
- target proteins
- response
- the target tissue response can be influenced by plasma concentrations and receptor numbers
endocrine activity is partly controlled by the concentration of hormone in ___ and ___. what makes the concentration critical?
blood and extracellular fluid
almost inevitably, disease results when hormone concentrations are either too high or too low, and precise control over circulating concentrations of hormones is therefore critical
___ is the primary mechanism through which the endocrine system maintains homeostasis
negative feedback
plasma glucose levels and the insulin response is an example of ___
negative feedback loops
synthesis and secretion of hormones are the most highly regulated aspect of endocrine control. such control is mediated by ___ and ___
positive and negative feedback circuits
target response is based on ___ and ___
receptor numbers and the presence of other different hormones
___ is the decrease of hormone receptors which decreases the sensitivity to that hormone
down-regulation
___ is the increase in the number of receptors which causes the cell to be more sensitive to a particular hormone
up-regulation
what are the 3 general roles of the hypothalamus in homeostasis?
- receives sensory information from the thalamus
- hypothalamus monitors the body for temperature, pH, and other conditions
- hypothalamus signals pituitary gland if conditions need to be corrected
- hypothalamo-pituitary portal system
- neurosecretory innervation
the ___ gland is located at the base of the brain and is controlled by the hypothalamus, and is protected by a bony structure called the ___
- pituitary
- sella turcica
the optic chiasm is located just above the ___
pituitary gland
the pituitary gland is divided into which two lobes?
anterior and posterior lobes
the ___ is the “master gland” that signals other glands to produce their hormones when needed
pituitary gland
what is the role of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
it receives signals from the hypothalamus, and responds by sending out the appropriate hormone to other endocrine glands
what is the role of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
it receives oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone from the hypothalamus and relays them to the body as necessary
which 6 hormones are produced in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and what are their roles?
- follicle-stimulating hormone
- luteinizing hormone
- adrenocorticotrophic hormone
- growth hormone
- prolactin
- thyroid-stimulating hormone
which hormone has the following function?
in females, stimulates estrogen production and maturation of the ova; in males, it stimulates sperm production
follicle-stimulating hormone
which hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to release its hormones?
thyroid-stimulating hormone
which hormone stimulates milk production?
prolactin
which hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its hormones?
adrenocorticotrophic
which hormone stimulates ovulation and estrogen production in females, and the production of testosterone in males?
luteinizing hormone
which hormone stimulates an increase in size of muscles and bones?
growth hormones
which 2 hormones are produced in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
which hormone stimulates the kidneys to conserve water?
antidiuretic hormone
which hormone works in women to cause contraction of the uterus and ejection of breast milk?
oxytocin
the pineal body is located ___ and secretes ___
- between the cerebral hemispheres
- melatonin
the gonads include the ovaries, which produce ___ and ___, and the testes, which produce ___
- estrogen and progesterone
- testosterone
the thymus gland is located ___ and secretes ___
- between the lungs
- thymosin
the stomach produces ___
gastrin
the small intestine releases ___ and ___
secretin and cholecystokinin
the heart secretes ___
atrial natriuretic peptide
the kidneys secrete ___
erythropoietin
what is a stressor, and what are 3 types?
- any stimulus that produces stress
- physical factors, psychological factors, and positive factors
the body’s response to stress consists of a group of reactions called ___, which is caused by the release of hormones. what does this reaction do to heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and glucose levels?
- general stress syndrome
- increases all of those
describe hyposecretion as an endocrine disorder, and give an example
- inadequate hormone release
- head trauma affects the pituitary gland’s ability to secrete ADH, which can cause diabetes insipidus = chronic polyuria
what are 4 examples of endocrine disorders?
- hyposecretion
- tumor (can destroy glands)
- hypersecretion
- autoimmune disorder
what is graves disease?
- aka toxic goiter
- an example of an autoimmune disorder that results in antibodies that mimic effects of TSH on the thyroid, resulting in endocrine issues
___ is caused by increased production of growth hormone or a pituitary adenoma (tumor)
acromegaly
the following are signs and symptoms of what disease of the endocrine system?
in children: gigantism
enlargement of the skull, and hands and feet bones
thickening of the skin
headache, fatigue, pain, weight gain, heart disease
acromegaly
what is the treatment for acromegaly?
- medications to decrease growth hormone production
- radiation therapy
- surgery
in childhood or adolescence, ___ results from hypersecretion of growth hormone, and ___ results from hyposecretion of growth hormone
- gigantism
- dwarfism
what are the 6 symptoms of acromegaly?
- rapid growth in height
- significantly enlarged hands and feet
- change in appearance of the face
- headaches
- visual problems
- can also lead to heart disease, respiratory disease, arthritis, or diabetes
what are the causes of dwarfism?
- underproduction of growth hormone
- trauma to pituitary gland or pituitary hormone
the following are signs and symptoms of what disease of the endocrine system?
short height, abnormal facial features, cleft lip or palate, delayed puberty, headache, frequent urination, and thirst
dwarfism
what is the treatment for dwarfism?
administer supplemental growth hormone
the ___ system controls fuel metabolism
___ is all of the chemical reactions within the cells of the body
metabolism
___ is the synthesis of larger organic molecules, and ___ is the breakdown of large molecules
- anabolism
- catabolism
normally, are the rates of anabolism and catabolism in balance in an adult?
yes
the brain needs a constant supply of ___ because it cannot store ___
- glucose
- glycogen
- nutrients from meals must be stored and released between meals
what is DM type I caused by?
decreased or absent production of insulin by the pancreas
what is DM type II caused by?
a resistance of insulin at receptors of end organs
obesity, high blood pressure, pregnancy, and high cholesterol levels can cause ___
diabetes mellitus
the following are signs and symptoms of what disease of the endocrine system?
high blood glucose levels with spillage into urine (glycosuria), excessive thirst, frequent urination, increased appetite (polyuria, polydispia, pulyphagia), blurred vision, slow wound healing, weight loss, foot ulcers, impotence in men
diabetes mellitus
what are common complications of diabetes mellitus?
kidney disease, blindness, atherosclerosis, amputations, infection
what is the treatment for diabetes mellitus?
- insulin (injection) and oral agents
- lifestyle changes
___% of diabetes mellitus cases are type I
10%
renal reabsorption of glucose is altered and glycosuria results in which DM?
type I
some cases of type I DM have autoimmune destruction of ___ cells, and are susceptible to ___
- beta
- diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
how is type I DM treated?
diet, exercise, monitoring of blood glucose, and periodic injections of insulin or insulin pump
___% of DM cases are type II
90
type ___ DM results from not enough insulin being produced, or insulin resistance (failure of target cells to respond to insulin)
II
what are 3 major risk factors for type II DM?
heredity, age (40+), and obesity
how is type II DM treated?
- weight loss program of diet and exercise
- oral medications improve insulin secretion or target cell sensitivity
- signal transduction pathway
is it the acute or chronic pathology of DM that involves cells that cannot absorb glucose, so they rely on fat and proteins (weight loss + weakness)?
acute
is it the acute or chronic pathology of DM that involves fat catabolism that increases FFAs in blood and ketone bodies?
acute
is it the acute or chronic pathology of DM that involves chronic hyperglycemia that leads to neuropathy and cardiovascular damage from atherosclerosis?
chronic
- retina and kidneys (common in type I), atherosclerosis leading to heart failure (common in type II), and gangrene (both)
- hyperosmolar/ altered consciousness
is it the acute or chronic pathology of DM that involves ketonuria that promotes osmotic diuresis, loss of sodium and potassium?
acute
is it the acute or chronic pathology of DM that involves ketoacidosis that occurs as ketones decrease blood pH?
acute
if continued, causes dyspnea and eventually diabetic coma; diabetic ketoacidosis
___ results from excess insulin injection or pancreatic islet tumor, causes hypoglycemia, weakness, and hunger, and can cause insulin shock
hyperinsulinism
hyperinsulinism causes hypoglycemia, weakness, and hunger, which triggers secretion of what 3 things, and what are the side effects?
- epinephrine, growth hormone, and glucagon
- side effects are anxiety, sweating, and increased heart rate
___ is uncorrected hyperinsulinism with disorientation, convulsions, or unconsciousness
insulin shock
when testing blood glucose of diabetic patients, what is considered normal for the finger stick and HBa1c?
<110 mg/dl
HBa1c <6
when testing blood glucose of diabetic patients, what is considered diabetic for the finger stick and HBa1c?
>120 mg/dl
HBa1c >6-8, ideal 6-7
what are signs/sympsoms of hypoglycemia?
- sudden onset
- insulin dosing and no food
- moist skin, drooling
- strong pulse
- tremors, convulsions
what are signs/symptoms of hyperglycemis?
- grandual onset, no insulin, food
- dry skin, thirst, abdominal pain
- deep respirations
what is the treatment for hypoglycemia? what if there are convulsions?
- oral carbohydrate under tongue
- frosting or sugar packets, orange juice, coke
- IV access: 50% dextrose, push slowly
- if convulsions: loosen clothing, activate 911, follow basic life support
- oxygen by cannula: 4L per minute
what is the treatment for hyperglycemia? is surgery acceptable if a patient is hyperglycemic?
- insulin at hospital, activate EMS, basic life support
- for surgery: mild hyperglycemia is ok
- take only regular insulin and cut NPH in half
- if unable to eat PO, then do not give NPH or any other agent
T or F:
glucose finger sticks should be in all dental offices
true
what are the two major hormones stored in the thyroid gland?
- thyroid hormones T3 and T4
- stimulate protein synthesis and increase cellular energy production
- calcitonin
- lowers blood calcium levels by activating osteoblasts
most people have how many parathyroid glands?
4
parathyroid glands secrete ___, which raises the blood calcium levels by activating ___
- parathyroid hormone
- osteoclasts
what disorder causes infants to suffer abnormal bone development, thickened facial features, low temperature, lethargy, brain damage, and cretinism in children?
congenital hypothyroidism (decreased thyroid hormone)
what disorder causes elevated metabolic rate, high heart rate, hypertension and exopthalmos, and usually weight loss?
hyperthyroidism
what disorder causes low metabolic rate, sluggishness, sleepiness, weight gain, constipation, dry skin and hair, cold sensitivity, and tissue swelling?
myxedema (adult hypothyroidism, decreased thyroid hormone)
what disorder results from a dietary iodine deficiency, no thyroid hormone, no negative feedback, and increased thyroid stimulating hormone?
endemic goiter (large thyroid gland)
what disorder causes antibodies to mimic thyroid stimulating hormone, an incrase in thyroid hormone, and exophthalmi?
toxic goiter aka graves disease
what are 3 implications of graves disease aka toxic goiter?
- thyrotoxicosis
- atrial fibrillation (arrhythmia)
- thyroid storm (can cause death)
myxedema can be reversed with ___
thyroid hormone
what are some causes of myxedema?
removal of the thyroid gland, neck radiation treatments, and obesity
the following are signs and symptoms of what disorder of the endocrine system?
weakness, fatigue, weight gain, depression, dry skin, general body aches, pale or yellow skin, slow heart rate, enlarged heart, coma
myxedema
what is the treatment for myxedema?
supplemental thyroid hormones and close monitoring of thyroid hormone levels
what are the causes of graves disease?
- over production of thyroid hormones
- also considered an autoimmune disorder
the following are signs and symptoms of what disorder of the endocrine system?
exophthalmos, goiter, insomnia, weight loss, muscle weakness, increased appetite, vision problems, increased heart rate
graves disease
what is the treatment for graves disease?
- medications
- radiation and surgery to the thyroid gland
- avoid thyrotoxicosis
graves disease is considered an autoimmune disorder, in which the body makes antibodies to ___
thyroid stimulating hormone receptor
graves disease can involve an accumulation of fat behind the eye globe due to ___
autoimmune reaction: inflammation of orbital connective tissue
describe hypoparathyroidism: what can cause it? what can it result in?
- surgical excision during thyroid surgery
- can cause hypocalcemia, potentially resulting in fatal tetany in 3-4 days
what can cause hyperparathyroidism, and what can result from it?
- can be caused by a tumor in the gland
- causes soft, fragile, and deformed bones, increase in blood calcium levels, and renal calculi (kidney stones)
hypercalcemia reduces the excitability of ___ and ___
muscle and nervous tissue
cardiac disturbances can occur
parathyroid hormone raises the level of calcium in the blood, which can cause ___ and/or ___
hypercalcemia and/or hypophophaturia
parathyroid hormone hyposecretion leads to ___ and increases ___
- hypocalcemia
- neuromuscular excitability
what is secreted by the adrenal medulla, and what do they do?
- epinephrine and norepinephrine
- prepare the body for the stress response
- catecholaminergic control
what are the main two hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex?
aldosterone and cortisol
___ results from excess cortical secretion from the adrenal gland, causes hyperglycemia, hypertension, weakness, and edema, muscle and bone loss occurs with protein catabolism, and is characterized by a buffalo hump and moon face (fat deposition between shoulders or in face)
cushing syndrome
___ is a result of adrenal androgen hypersecretion that accompanies cushing syndrome, and causes enlargement of external sexual organs in children, early onset of puberty, and masculinizing effects on women (deeper voice and beard growth)
adrenogenital syndrome (AGS)
cushings disease can be caused by long-term use of ___, or excessive production of ___
- steroids
- ACTH - adrenal gland tumor
what is the treatment for cushings disease?
- lifestyle changes
- radiation and surgery for tumor removal
what is addison’s disease caused by?
specific causes unknown but may be due to cancer or an autoimmune dysfunction (destruction of adrenal cortex - deficiency of adrenal cortical hormones, primarily cortisol and aldosterone)
the following are signs and symptoms of what disorder of the endocrine system?
weakness, fatigue, dizziness, loss of appetite, weight loss, muscle pain, vomiting, diarrhea, lightheadedness (low blood pressure), dehydration, irritability and depression, and darkening of the skin
addison’s disease
what is the treatment for addison’s disease?
- corticosteroids
- medications or hormones to balance sodium and potassium levels
what causes darkening of the skin in addison’s disease?
loss of cortisol -> increase in ACTH -> darkening of the skin
an increase in stress brought on by addison’s disease is called ___
addisonian crisis
