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KCUMB Physiology II > Exam I > Flashcards

Exam I Flashcards

1
Q

What day during development does the superior/cranial neuropore close? What day does the inferior/caudal neuropore close?

A

Anterior = day 27

Posterior = day 30

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2
Q

What is anencephaly and holoprosencephaly?

A

Anencephaly - failure of cranial end of neural tube to close

Holoprosencephaly - failure of prosencephalon to divide into two cerebral hemispheres; facial deformations = cleft lip and palate, single orbit w/ 2 eyes, 1 eye, 0 eye

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3
Q

Differentiate between occulta and cystica in spinal bifida defects

A

Occulta - failure of closure of inferior neuropore; failure of developed vertebral arches

Cystica - sac-like cyst at caudal end of spinal cord (3 types)

Meningocele

Meningomyelocele (meninges & spinal cord, abnormal spine growth, bowel and bladder dysfunction)

Myeloschisis (total paralysis)

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4
Q

Functions of basal nuclei of the telencephalon

A

Basal nuclei - subconscious motor contol and muscle tone

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5
Q

Function of epithalamus, thalamus, & hypothalamus in the diencephalon

A

Epithalamus:

Habenular nuclei = emotional & visceral responses to odors, pineal body

Thalamus:

Major relay center for afferent & efferent info. to & from cerebrum & other brain parts

Hypothalamus:

ANS control

Mamillary bodies involved in Olfactory reflexes & emotional responses to odors

Intermediary b/w nervous and endocrine system

body temp

Maintain ECM volume

Biorhythm oscillator

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6
Q

Functions of the superior/inferior colliculus and tegmentum of the mesenchephalon

A

Superior - visual reflexes

Inferior - auditory & olfactory reflexes

Tegmentum - red nucles, substantia nigra, tracts

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7
Q

Functions of the pons (what centers it contains?) and cerebellum of the metencephalon

A

Sleep and Respiratory Centers

Cerebellum:

Coordinated skeletal muscle movements

Maintains equilibrium & posture

Synergic control of muscle activity

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8
Q

What vital reflex centers does the medulla of the myelencephalon contain? Olives, pyramids, nuclei

A

Cardiac, Vasomotor, & Respiration centers

pyramids - lateral corticospinal tracts

olives - nuclei related to cerebellum

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9
Q

What are the 3 major subdivisions of the nervous system? What are their main components?

A

CNS - brain (sensory, motor, cognitive) & spinal cord

ANS - sympathetic, parasympathetic

PNS - cranial & spinal nerves (entirely motor)

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10
Q

Define nucleus and tract

A

You’re on tract if you’re using your brain

dendrites and nerve cell bodies in CNS

Tract - bundle of axons in CNS

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11
Q

Define ganglion & nerve

A

Dendrites and nerve cell bodies in PNS

(gangs go out in the periphery/streets and they get on my nerves with all that noise)

Nerve - bundle of axons in PNS

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12
Q

White vs. Gray Matter

A

White = myelinated axons

Gray = unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, dendrites

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13
Q

White ramus communicans vs. Gray ramus communicans

A

White - carries myelinated pre-ganglionic fibers

Gray - carries unmyelinated post-ganglionic fibers back to spinal nerve

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14
Q

Define dendrites and their characteristics vs. axon

A

Receptive unit

  • carry info to the cell body
  • contain NT receptors
  • Conduct local potentials

AXON:

Conductive unit

  • Conducts action potential
  • Releases NT
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15
Q

Paravertebral ganglia vs. Prevertebral ganglia

A

Para - cell bodies contain postganglionic sympathetic nerves

Site of synapses b/w preganglionic myelinated symp. neurons & postganglionic non-myelinated symp. neurons

Pre - anterior to abdominal aorta

Site of synapse b/w preganglionic myelinated symp. neurons & postganglionic non-myelinated neurons

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16
Q

What are the components of the reflex arc? (3)

A

Afferent - sensory to CNS

SomatoSensory from nonvisceral (skin, skeletal muscle)

Somatomotor from viscera

Efferent - motor

Somatomotor to skeletal muscle

Somatovisceral to smooth/cardiac muscles

Interneuron (association)

In CNS, modulator

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17
Q

List the components of a synapse

A

Presynaptic membrane

Synaptic cleft

Postsynaptic membrane

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18
Q

Describe the 3 physiologic states of a neuron

A

Resting = -65mV

Excited = -45mV

Inhibited = -70mV

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19
Q

List in order the components of the somatosensory axis

A

PASRCTS

Peripheral receptors

Afferent neurons (primary, secondary, tertiary)

Spinal cord/brainstem

Reticular substance; pons, medulla, mesencephalon

Cerebellum

Thalamus

Somesthetic areas of cerebral cortex

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20
Q

ACh; site of secretion and effect?

A

Excitatory

Pyramidal cells (cerebral cortex)

Basal nuclei neurons

Alpha motor neurons

ANS preganglionic neurons

Parasymp. postganglionic neurons

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21
Q

NEpi; site of secretion and effect?

A

Either Excitatory or Inhibitory

Brain stem & hypothalamus neurons

Neurons in pons

Most postganglionic neurons of symp. system

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22
Q

Dopamine; site of secretion and effect?

A

Inhibitory

Most neurons originating in substantia nigra

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23
Q

Glycine; site of secretion and effect?

A

Inhibitory

Synapses in spinal cord

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24
Q

GABA; site of secretion and effect?

A

Inhibitory

Spinal cord and cerebral cortex

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25
Q

Glutamate; site of secretion and effect?

A

Excitatory

Sensory pathways entering CNS

Areas of cerebral cortex

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26
Q

Define electrotonic conduction

A

The direct spread of electrical current by ion conduction in the dendritic fluids without generating an Action potental

Does not generate an ap; becomes weak and dies out

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27
Q

Define decremental conduction

A

Dendrites are long and thin

Dendrites are partially permeable to K+ and Cl- ions, causing leakage, causing the potential to be lost

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28
Q

What are the factors that determine firing rate?

A

The normal excitatory rate

Changes in the excitatory rate due to superimposition of additional excitatory or inhibitory signals

(neuron will fire repetitively if signal remains above threshold)

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29
Q

Define fatigue of synaptic transmission, explain the mechanism of fatigue

A

When excitatory synapses are repetitively stimulated at a rapid rate; firing rate becomes progressively less

A protective mechanism against excess neuronal activity

Mechanism; exhaustion or partial exhaustion of the NT in the presynaptic terminals

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30
Q

Describe the effects of alkalosis, acidosis, and hypoxia on synaptic transmission

A

Alkalosis - enhances excitability

Acidosis - depresses excitability

Hypoxis - complete inexcitability

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31
Q

Describe the effects of caffeine, theophyllin, theobromine, strychnine, and anesthetic on synaptic transmission

A

Caffeine - enhances excitability; reduces threshold

Theophyllin - enhances excitability; reduces threshold

Theobromine - enhances excitability; reduces threshold

Strychnine - enhances excitability; lowers inhibitory transmitters

Anesthetics - decreases synaptic transmission; increases excitation threshold

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32
Q

Define synaptic delay

A

The time it takes to transmit a signal from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron

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33
Q

What are the factors that contribute to synaptic delay? (5)

A

Time it takes to releases the Nt from the presyn. neuron

Time it takes for the NT to diffuse across the synaptic cleft

Time it takes for the receptor to increase membrane permeability

Time is takes for the inward diffusion of Na+ ions

How the NT acts on the postsynaptic membrane

Minimal time = 0.5msec

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34
Q

Distinguish among the fusiform, granular, and pyramidal neurons in the cerebral cortex

A

Fusiform - smaller output neurons (sends info from cortex to other brain parts)

Granular - interneurons; short axons (both excitatory; glutamate and inhibitory; GABA)

Pyramidal - large output neurons (sends info down to spinal cord)

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35
Q

Most output neurons from the cerebral cortex originate from which of the following layers?

I,II,III

IV

V,VI

A

V, VI

I.II.III - intracortical association functions (integrate info within cortex among layers)

IV. - terminal sensory fibers

V.VI - origin of most output signals

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36
Q

Primary motor vs. Primary sensory area

A

Primary motor - direct connection w/ specific muscles

Primary sensory - detect specific sensations

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37
Q

Secondary motor vs. Secondary sensory

A

Secondary motor - patterns of motor activity

Secondary sensory - analyze meaning of specific sensory signals

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38
Q

List the functions of the association areas and name and describe the 3 important association areas. What major centers do these contain?

A

Receive and analyze signals simultaneously from multiple motor and sensory cortices

Limbic association area - behavior, emotions, motivation, facial recognition (temporal region)

Parieto-occipitotemporal - Wernicke’s area (language comprehension; intelligence; left side of brain), angular gyrus area

Prefrontal - Broca’s area (word formation) almost always dominant of left side of brain, planning effective movement

39
Q

Describe the functions fo the angular gyrus, where is it located?

A

Initial processing of visual language, inferior parital lobe

Located within the parieto-occipitotemporal association area

40
Q

Describe the results of cutting the corpus callosum

A

Corpus callosum - major commissure b/w the two hemispheres

Blocks the transfer of info from Wernicke’s area to nondominant motor cortex

Prevents the transfer of somatic and visual info from right hemisph. into wernickes area

Results in two entirely separate conscious portions of the brain

(can’t comprehend what you’re holding, unless you see it in your face)

41
Q

Distinguish between declarative memory and skill/reflexive memory

A

Declarative memory - memory of various details of an integrated thought (surrounding, time relationships, cause of experience)

Skill/reflexive memory - associated with motor activities

42
Q

List the 5 basic types of sensory receptors; what do they do

A
  1. Mechanoreceptors - tactile, deep tissues, hearing, equilibrium, arterial pressure
  2. Thermoreceptors
  3. Nociceptors - free nerve endings to pain
  4. Electromagnetic receptors - vision
  5. Chemoreceptors - taste, smell, osmolarity, arterial oxygen, bood CO2, blood glucose, aa, FAs
43
Q

Explain what is meant by differential sensitivities

A

Each type of receptor is highly sensitive to one type of stimulus and almost nonresponsive to other types

44
Q

Define modality

A

Each of the principal types of sensation

think of a disease, always expresses the same way

45
Q

Describe the labeled line principle

A

Nerve fibers that transmit only one modality of sensation

Refers to the specificity of nerve fibers for transmitting only one modality of sensation

46
Q

What are the four mechanisms of receptor potentials? MEAT

A

Mechanical Deformation

Electromagnetic radiation

Application of a chemical

Temp change

47
Q

Describe the receptor potential of the Pacinian corpuscle, what’s the relation between the stimulus intensity & receptor potential? Can it stimulate an AP? If so, how?

A

Deformity Changes membrane permeability which allows more Na+ to enter

Modality gated Na+ channels are open in response to membrane deformation caused by touch or pressure

A local, decremental potential is usually created

AP is created if local potential mechanically induces enough channels to open, if strong enough on the first node of ranvier, the local potential will drive a current to generate an AP

48
Q

Define adaptation of receptors

A

When all receptors are partially or completely adapted to any constant stimulus after a period of time

49
Q

Compare tonic vs. phasic receptors

A

Tonic

  • slow-adapting
  • continuous strength
  • transmits impulses as long as stimuli is present

Phasic

  • Rapidly adapting
  • Non-continuous signal
  • Only stimulated when stimulus strength changes
50
Q

Differentiate b/w type A and type C fibers

A

A

  • Large & medium sized fibers of spinal nerves
  • Myelinated
  • Fight signal conduction
  • Subdivisions - alpha, beta, gamma, delta

B

  • Small fibers
  • Nonmyelinated
  • Low velocity conduction
  • Group VI - pain, itch, temp, crude touch
51
Q

Spatial vs. Temporal Summation

A

Spatial

Increasing signal strength via progressively increasing the number of fibers

Temporal

Increase in signal strength by increasing the nerve impulse frequency fiber

52
Q

Describe the discharge, facilitated/inhibition zones of a neuronal pool

A

Discharge Zone

all output fibers stimulated by the incoming fiber

Facilitated/Inhibition Zones

Facilitated but not excited

Lay on the outside of the discharge zone

53
Q

Define reverberatory circuit/Oscillatory circuits, what is it caused by?

A

Caused by (+) feedback within neuronal circuit

Goes on repetitively

Continues to fire until another source turns it off

54
Q

Define commissure

A

Tract in the CNS that decussates

55
Q

What is the function of the cortical layer I.II.III?

A

Intracortical association functions

56
Q

Describe the primary, secondary, and tertiary neurons in the ascending pathways

A

Primary

via external receptors, travel thru dorsal roots of spinal cords and synapse with secondary neurons

Secondary

Tracts located in spinal cord and brainstem, terminate in the thalamus and synapse with tertiary neurons

Tertiary

From the thalamus to sensory cortex and travel through the internal capsule

57
Q

What are the two spinothalamic pathways and what modalities do they carry? Describe their pathways

A

Lateral spinothalamic tract

Pain and Temp

Secondary axons decussate; joined in brainstem

Travel up lateral column

Anterior Spinothalamic tract

Crude touch, pressure, tickle, itch

Secondary neurons decussate in anterior gray/white commissure

Synapse w/ tertiary in VPL nucleus of thalamus

Tertiary travel thru internal capsul to primary sensory cortex

58
Q

What modalities does the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system carry? What are the two pathways? Describe them

A

Two-point sensation (discriminatory/fine touch), presure, vibration

Primary synapse w/ secondary (decussate) in medulla, tertiary ascend thru internal capsule to primary sensory cortex

Fasciculus gracilis/slender

Medial; sensations below

Fasciculus cuneatus/wedge-shaped

Lateral; sensations above

59
Q

Desribe primary neurons in sensory pathways; originate where, cell bodies, decussation, synapse

A
  • Originate in periphery
  • Cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia
  • Synapse in spinal cord with secondary neurons
60
Q

Desribe secondary neurons in sensory pathways; originate where, cell bodies, decussation, synapse

A
  • Originate in spinal cord
  • Travel through myelinated columns
  • Can decussate through the white/gray commissures
  • Synapse with tertiary neurons at VPL in thalamus
61
Q

Desribe tertiary neurons in sensory pathways; originate where, cell bodies, decussation, synapse

A
  • Travel thru internal capsule (myelinated pathway) to the cerebral cortex (primary sensory cortex)
  • Synapse at the somatosensory cortex
62
Q

Fast pain vs. Slow pain

Time, Myelination, Fiber type, Termination, which tract do they make up

A

Fast

0.1 sec; small diameter, myelinated Type A fibers = glutamate; Terminate in lamina I of dorsal horn; mechanical & thermal stimuli, Neospinothalamic tracts

Slow

1 sec; Type C fibers terminate in spinal cord layer II & III of dorsal horns (substantia gelatinosa) of spinal cord = glutamate, nonmyelinated; Terminate thruout brainstem layers,

Aching, slow burning, throbbing, nausea, chronic

Elicited by mechanical, thermal, chemical stimuli

63
Q

What type of pain travels through neospinothalamic and paleospinothalamic pathways? (fast/slow)

A

Neospinothalamic = fast (contain tertiary that ascend to somatosensory cortex)

Paleospinothalamic = slow - secondary terminate throughout brainstem

64
Q

Define the Brown-Sequard syndrome and its characteristics, what’s it caused by?

A

Hemisection of the spinal cord

All motor functions blocked on the side of the transection and below

Loss of:

pain, heat, and cold (spinothalamic pathway) on the opposite side below the level of transection

Kinesthetic and position sensation, vibration sensation, two-point discrimination (medial lemiscus) on same side below the level of transection

65
Q

List the 3 components of the analgesia system; what is it?

A
  • Absence of pain sensibility, pain relief without loss of consciousness
  • Periaquaductal gray and periventricular
  • Raphe magnus nucleus and reticular nuceli
  • Pain inhibitory complex in dorsal horns of spinal cord
66
Q

What is the mode of action of thermal receptors and how are temperature sensations projected?

A

Warmth nerve endings

C-Type fibers

Cold receptors

A-Type fibers

67
Q

What conditions result in severe pain?

A

A diffuse stimulation of pain nerve endings thruout viscera

Type C fibers

68
Q

Define refraction

A

The bending of light waves at an angulated surface of a transparent material

69
Q

Define refractive index

A

The ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity of light traveling in the substance

RI air = 1

70
Q

Define refractive power

A

A measure of how much a lens bends light waves

Measured in dipoters

71
Q

Define focal point

A

The point through which all parallel rays of light will pass after passing through each part of the lens

72
Q

Define focal length

A

The distance from the center of the lens to the focal point

73
Q

Define diopter

A

1 diopter = 1 meter/focal length of a lens

74
Q

Define emmetropia

A

Normal vision

Parallel light rays from distant objects are in sharp focus on the retina when ciliary muscle is completely relaxed

75
Q

Define hyperopia

A

Farsightedness

Eyeball is short

Can see far but not near

76
Q

Define Myopia

A

Nearsightedness

When ciliary muscles are relaxed, light rays coming from distant objects are focused in front of the retina

Can see near but not far

77
Q

Define visual acuity and resolving power. what is the max visual acuity of the human eye for two-point light sources?

A

Resolving power

The ability to distinguish small/closely adjacent images

Visual Acuity

The measurement of resolving power

Light from a distant point source will normally create a spot with a diamter of ~11um and a center that is brighter than the periphery

Max visual acuity = 1.5-2um

78
Q

Describe/Trace the Rhodopsin-Retinal visual cycle. What does rhodopsin + light create? What is rhodopsin made up of?

A

Rhodopsin = Scotopsin + 11-cis-retinal

Scotopsin + all-trans-retinAl

79
Q

Describe ion flow in rods and compare ion flow in the dark and ion flow in the light

A

Rod excitation causes hyperpolarization of the intrarod membranous potential

Outer Segment in the Dark: (rod activated in dark)

Membrane is leaky to Na+ via cGMP-gated channels which neutralizes the (-) inside the cell, therefore there’s reduced electronegativity inside the membrane (-40mV rather than -70 to -80mV)

Outer Segment in the Light:

When exposed to light, rhodopsin is cleaved

Retinal stimulates transducin (G-protein) —> cGMP phosphodiesterase —> catalyzes cGMP —> 5’GMP

cGMP reduction closes Na+ channels and cell becomes hyperpolarized

80
Q

List the cellular layers of the retina; which ones interneurons, which one forms the optic nerve?

A

PHBAG; Public Housing BAGs

Photoreceptors

Horizontal cells

Bipolar cells

Amacrine cells = interneurons

Ganglion cells = optic nerve

81
Q

3 neuron indirect pathway for cone vision vs. 4 neuron pure rod vision pathway

A

BiG BAG

3 neuron cones: BG

Cones, Bipolar Cells, Ganglion

4 neuron rods; BAG

Bipolar, Amacrine, Ganglion

82
Q

What are the 3 ganglion cells (vision)? Describe them; diameter, what are their functions?

A

XYZ

X - small; transmit 8 m/sec

  • Receive excitation from rods and use bipolar and amacrine cells

Y - medium; transmit 14 m/sec

  • signals represent discrete retinal locations
  • Responsible for color visions, signal represents discrete retinal locations

Z - large; transmit 50 m/sec

  • Respond to rapid changes in visual image; CNS;
83
Q

How much decussation occurs in the optic chiasm?

A

50%

Both sides of brain receives info from both retinas

84
Q

Trace the visual pathway; what’s the function of the lateral geniculate nucleus in transmission gating?

A

Optic radiation

Lateral geniculate body

Optic tract

Optic chiasm

Optic nerve

Lateral geniculate nucleus

II.III.V. - receive signals from lateral half of ipsilateral retina; transmit black and white

I.IV.VI - receive signals from medial half of opposite retina; transmits color

85
Q

Define primary visual cortex

What are the layers of the primary visual cortex? (6) Define color blobs, where are they located?

A

Receives the visual data from the lateral geniculate where signals from the two eyes enter alternating stripes of columns in layer IV

III.IV.V. - transmit signals that depict accurate spatial detail and color

IV. - various subdivisions

Color blobs - found in secondary visual areas (I.II.III.V.VI); receive lateral signals from adjacent visual columns and are activated specifically by color signals

86
Q

How does accomodation change from children to older individuals?

A

Children: refractive power = 20-30 diopters

Older Individuals: refractive power = <2 diopters

Age 70 = 0 diopters

Lens become larger and thicker and more elastic, prebyopia

87
Q

Define impedance matching, what structures are involved?

A
  • Provided by the tympanic membrane and ossicular system between the sound waves in air and the sound vibrations in fluid of the cochlea
  • When the ossicular system reduces the distance of the stapes and increases the force of movement
  • Increased force exterted on the cochlea fluid than the tympanic membrane
  • effectively transmit air-born sound into the fluid of the inner ear
88
Q

How would hearing sensitivity be affected in the absence of the ossicular system and the tympanic membrane?

A

Sound waves will be able to travel directly to the cochlea at the oval window decreasing the sensitivity of the ear

15-20 decibels less

While normally, tympanic membrane and stapedius muscle dampens the system, creating rigidity of the ossicular system

89
Q

What is the function of Reissner’s membrane?

A
  • Maintains a special fluid within the scala media
  • Creates a compartment filled with endolymph, important for the function of the organ of corti, functions as a diffusion barrier
  • Plays no role in sound conduction and is required for normal function of the sound-receptive hair cells
90
Q

Describe the arrangement of basilar fibers within the cochlea

A
  • Length increases form the oval window to the apex of the cochlea
  • Diameter decrease from oval window to the cochlea apex
  • Oval window = short, stiff fibers, high frequency
  • Cochlea apex = long, limber fibers, low frequency
91
Q

What is the relation between endolymph and perilymph; where are they found. What’s the origin of endolymph? How do these fluids relate to the endonuclear potential?

A
  • Endolymph = fills scala media (high K+, low Na+)
  • Perilymph = fills scala vestibuli & scala tympani (high Na+, low K+)
  • Scala media more (+) creating a difference in potential = endochochlear potential which is generated by continual secretion of K+ ions into the scala media by the stria vascularis
  • Hair cells project thru reticular lamina & bathed by endolymph (w/ -150mV potential), & lower hair cells surrounded by perilymph (w/ -70 mV) = high electrical potential = Cell sensitized increasing ability to respond to slightest sound
92
Q

In the slow chronic pain, most fibers terminate where?

A

Reticular foramen

93
Q

All visceral pain passes through A delta fibers

T/F

A

False

KCUMB Physiology II (4 decks)

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