Exam Content (NO LABELLING/ DIAGRAMS) Flashcards
List the functions and classifications of bones and bone tissue
Bone tissue:
- Support: skeleton is the structural framework for the body
- Protections: protects many internal organs
- Movement: together bones and muscles produce movement
- Mineral homeostasis: bones store and release minerals (Ca2+, phosphate)
- Blood cell production: within certain bones
Name and list the functions of the major cellular organelles, membranes and structures.
Organelles-
- Ribosomes:
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
- Golgi Apparatus:
- Mitochondria:
- Lysosomes:
- The cytoskeleton:
Membranes (containing protein groups)-
- Transporters:
- Receptors:
- Enzymes:
Importance of mitochondria and ATP generation within human cells?
Generator of the cell, play role in aging and many mitochondrial diseases
ATP generation: Transport of proteins and lipids into and out of the cell.
List the major tissue types of the body and list the constituents of each tissue
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nerve
Describe the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of bone
Macroscopic=
- Compact bone: hard and dense, external part of bone (cortex)
- Spongy bone: sponge-like framework, arranged in a pattern to resist stress and strain
Microscopic=
- Osteoprogenitor cell: Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum, turns into osteoblast
- Osteoblast: Bone-forming cells
- Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix
- Osteoclasts- Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
Describe difference between compact and spongy bone
Compact bone= (hard and dense)
- Osteon is the structural unit
- weight bearing
- contains: lamellae, Lacunae, Canaliculi, Central canal and Perforating canals
Spongy= (sponge-like framework)
- consists of trabeculae ‘beams or rods’ and does not contain osteons
- redbone marrow fills spaces between the trabeculae
- resist stress and strain
Describe bone development and growth
Embryonic development=
- Development requires both types of ossification.
- Ossification doesn’t begin until after 4 wks gestation, with clavicle being the first bone to begin ossification.
- by 12 wk of age there are 275 bones!
Bone growth=
- Interstitial growth: Increases length of long bones
- Appositional growth: Increases thickness and remodelling of all bones
Explain regulation of calcium in the body
When blood calcium levels fall below normal there are two main hormones the body secretes:
- PTH (parathyroid hormone)
- Calcitriol
Describe the pathogenesis of osteoporosis, contributing factors and treatment/prevention.
Osteoporosis= loss of bone mass and increased porosity of the bone
Causes= age, reduced PA, Endocrine disorders, genetics, nutritional state, medications (steroids) and post menopausal.
Treatment/ Prevention=
- Calcium, Vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
- Hormone (esrogen) replacement therapy slows bone loss
- Diet (increase dairy products)
- Increase wieght-bearing exercise throughout life
- Limit coffee, smoking and alcohol
Identify the anatomical position and define the main anatomical terms
Anatomical Position:
- standing upright
- facing observer, head level
- eyes facing forward
- feet flat on floor
- arms at the sides
- palms turned forward (ventral
Anatomical Terms: Superior – Towards the head (top) Inferior – Away from the head (bottom) Proximal – Towards the trunk Distal – Away from the trunk Posterior/dorsal – Towards the back Anterior/ventral – Towards the front Medial – Towards the middle Lateral – Away from the midline
Describe the body planes and axes
Planes
- Sagittal= left and right
- Coronal/ frontal= front and back
- Transverse= upper and lower
Axes
- Frontal/ coronal
- Sagittal
- Vertical
List the different types of joints and name an example for each
Hinge: knee, elbow, ankle and interphalangeal joints
Pivot: supination and pronation
Ball and socket: shoulder and hip joint
Condyloid: wrist, between metacarpals and phalanges (metacarpophalangeal)
Plane: thumb joint, sternoclavicular, Inner ear
Saddle: thumb, sternoclavicular joint and Inner ear
Describe movements
Flexion/extension Adduction/abduction Circumduction Pronation/ supination Planta flexion/ dorsi flexion Inversion/ eversion Elevation/ depression Protraction and retraction
Common joint problems
Joint disorders=
Arthritis
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Osteoarthritis
Name the bones of the wrist and hand
carpal bones nonmonic
Carpal (8) Metacarpal (5) Proximal phalanges (5) Intermediate phalanges (4) Distal Phalanges (5)
carpal bones
Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can’t Handle
(bottom (left-right), top (left-right))
What are fractures and dislocations?
Fracture= broken bone or bone fracture occurs when a force exerted against a bone is stronger than it can structurally withstand. Dislocation= A fall on an abducted and externally rotated arm
Define the key landmarks and muscle attachment sites on the bones of the pelvis, femur and tibia
Scapula landmarks: 3 fossa= shallow depression 3 angles= corners 3 borders= edges 2 processes= outgrowth or protuberance 2 tubercles= small projection 1 cavity= hollow
Attachment sites:
femur= Greater trochanter, Gluteal tuberosity, Linea aspera
pelvis= fovea capitis to the acetabulum of the pelvis
tibia= lateral malleolus
Differences between male and female pelvis
Female pelvis: Adapted for childbearing Light and thin Shallow false pelvis Large, circular pelvic brim Acetabulum faces anteriorly Pubic arch is greater than 90
Male Male pelvis Adapted for strength and speed Heavy and thick Deep false pelvis Small, heart shaped brim Acetabulum faces laterally Pubic arch is less than 90°
Define the joints of the lower limb
Pelvic girdle
Thigh
Leg
Ankle and foot
Describe the different arches of the foot and their function
- Longitudinal arch
lateral and medial arches - Transverse arch
formed by tarsals and bases of metatarsals
Curvatures of the spine
Cervical (7) - neck -Secondary Thoracic (12) -thoracic cage - Primary Lumbar (5) - lower back - Secondary Sacrum (5 fused) - pelvis - Primary Coccyx (4 fused)- tail bone
Difference between C1, C2 and the other cervical vertebrae
C1= No body or spinous process, anterior and posterior arches and two lateral masses C2= Dens projects superiorly into the anterior arch of the atlas
One vertebral and two transverse, slender and often bifid (C2-6)
Disorders of the spine
- Scoliosis: abnormal lateral curvature of spine
- Kyphosis: excessive curvature of the thoracic spine posteriorly
- Lordosis: Excessive curvature of the lumbar spine anteriorly
Describe structure and components of the thoracic cage
componens:
- sternum
- ribs
- costal cartilages
- thoracic vertebrae
structure:
Enclose and protect the organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Provide support for the bones of the upper limbs
Play a role in breathing
List the main functions of the bones of the skull
- cranial bones (8 bones)
- Facial bones (14 bones)
Functions:
- Protect the brain
- Framework of the face
- Cavities for the special sense organs (eyes, nose, ears, mouth)
- Provide the main opening to the external environment (for food and air)
- Secure the teeth (Gomphosis)
- Anchor facial muscles to the face
Describe the main cranial bones of the skull, location and function
Parietal bones (2) - sides and roof of the cranium.
Ethmoid bone- separates the nasal cavity from the brain.
Sphenoid bone- forms part of the orbit of the eye, side of the skull, and base of the skull.
Temporal bones (2) - sides of the cranium (temples).
Occipital bone- the most inferior part of the cranium.
Frontal bone- forehead, part of the orbit, and part of the bony nose.
What are the 4 main sutures of the skull
Coronal suture—between parietal bones and frontal bone
Sagittal suture—between right and left parietal bones
Lambdoid suture—between parietal bones and occipital bone
Squamous (squamosal) sutures—between parietal and temporal bones on each side of skull
3 main types of muscle tissue and the main characteristics of each type
Skeletal: Attached to bones and skin Striated Voluntary (i.e., conscious control) Can be involuntary Powerful Primary topic of this lecture
Smooth: Attached to hair follicles in the skin
Located in hollow organs other than the heart
Not striated
Involuntary
Cardiac: Only in the walls of the heart Striated Involuntary Auto-rhythmic because of built in pacemaker Intercalated discs Wave like conduction
What is the origin and insertion of a muscle?
Origin= bone that does NOT move when muscle shortens (normally proximal)
Insertion= movable bone (sometimes other muscles or tissues e.g. Glutues maximus - ITB band)
Difference between ligament and tendon
Ligament= attaches bone to bone
-short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue.
Tendon= attaches muscle to bone
-flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue.
What are the names and function/s of muscles of hip, leg and rotator cuff?
Hip= gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae
-Facilitate weight beaing
Leg= adductors, hamstrings, pectineus, quadriceps and sartorius.
-help you walk, run, jump, stand on your toes and flex your feet
rotator cuff= Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, subscapularis
-stabilizing the shoulder joint, by providing the “fine tuning” movements of the head of the humerus within the glenoid fossa.
Origin and insertion of muscles of hip
Hip extensors-
Origin: sacrum and gluteal surface of ilium
Insertion: ¼ inserts into the gluteal tuberosity of the femur and ¾ inserts into the iliotibial tract/band (ITB)
What are the movements of the trunk
Flexion/extension
Lateral flexion
Twist/rotation
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the trunk
Abdominal muscles- allows trunk to twist/ flex and rotate
External Oblique
Internal Oblique
Rectus Abdominus
Transverse Abdominus
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the neck
Sternocleidomastoid: flexes the neck and rotates the head
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the head
Masseter- attach zygomatic arch, maxilla & mandible
Buccinator- assist with chewing/ facial expression
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the arm
Flexors
Biceps Brachii
Brachialis
Extensors:
Tricep brachii
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the trunk
External oblique
- origin= Serrations from ribs 5-12
- insertion= Iliac crest posteriorly forms the inguinal ligament & rectus sheath
Internal oblique
- origin= Thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament
- insertion= 10th-12th ribs, and linea alba
Rectus Abdominis
- origin= cartilage ribs 5-7, xiphoid process
- insertion- Pubic symphysis and pubic bone
Transverse abdominus
origin= Rib cartilage 7-12, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament
insertion- abdominal sheath, linea alba
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the neck
Sternocleidomastoid
- origin= 1) manubrium of the sternum 2) medical clavicle
- insertion= mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Trapezius
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the arm
- flexor carpi radialis
- insertion= 2nd and 3rd metacarpals - flexor carpi ulnaris
- insertion= lateral carpal and 5th metacarpal - Palmaris longus
- Insertion: palmar aponeurosis - Pronator teres
- origin: 1) medial epicondyle of humerous 2) coranoid process of ulna
- insertion: radius shaft
Describe the function of muscle tissue
Producing body movements Stabilizing body positions Maintain posture Regulating organ volumes bands of smooth muscle called sphincters Movement of substances within the body blood, lymph, urine, air, food and fluids, sperm Producing heat involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle (shivering)
Describe the 3 main types of muscle tissue and the main characteristics of each type
Smooth muscle tissue:
- Attached to hair follicles in the skin
- Located in hollow organs other than the heart
- Not striated
- Involuntary
Cardiac muscle tissue: -Only in the walls of the heart -Striated I-nvoluntary -Auto-rhythmic because of built in p-acemaker I-ntercalated discs -Wave like conduction
Skeletal muscle tissue:
- Attached to bones and skin
- Striated
- Voluntary (i.e., conscious control)
- Can be involuntary
- Powerful
- Primary topic of this lecture
Describe skeletal muscle organisation and composition
-Connective tissue components of muscle
Superficial fascia is loose connective tissue & fat underlying the skin
Deep fascia = dense irregular connective tissue around muscle
-Epimysium
dense regular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle
-Perimysium
fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle fibers)
-Endomysium
fine areolar connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber
All these connective tissue layers extend beyond the muscle belly to form the tendon
What are the events involved in skeletal muscle contraction and the sliding filament theory?
Activation: neural stimulation at a neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
Excitation-contraction coupling:
- Generation and propagation of an action potential (AP) along the sarcolemma (membrane surrounding the muscle fiber)
- Final trigger: a brief rise in intracellular Ca2+ levels
Define the all-or-none law
If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, a nerve or muscle fibre will fire.
define what a motor unit is
The combination of an individual motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates
Describe the main components of blood
Plasma 1. Erythrocytes (RBC buffy coat: 2. Leukocytes (WBC) 3. Platelets
What are platelets and how do they assist in blood clot formation
Platelets are involved in blood clotting.
Platelets are actually fragments of cells called megakaryocytes.
What is Erythropoiesis and EPO
Erythropoiesis: red blood cell production
A hemocytoblast is transformed into a proerythroblast
EPO= hormone controls (Erythropoietin)
Blood disorders
Anemia
- Hemorrhagic anemia
- Hemolytic anemia
- Aplastic anemia
- iron- deficiency anemia
- pernicious anemia
- Thalassemia
- sickle-cell anemia
difference between pulmonary and systemic circuits
Pulmonary circulation= circulation around the lungs
purpose: Oxygenation of blood
Removal of carbon dioxide
Systemic circulation= circulation around the body
purpose: Provide tissues with oxygen & nutrients,
Waste removal
identify the main components of the vascular system
Pulmonary and systemic circuits
Describe the layers of a vessel
- Tunica intima
Endothelium lines the lumen of all vessels
Basement membrane outside the endothelium - Tunica media
Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin - Tunica externa/adventitia
Collagen fibers and elastin, protect and reinforce
Larger vessels contain “vasa vasorum” to nourish the external layer
intima is in the inside
Explain the differences between arteries, arterioles, venules and veins
Arteries- carry blood AWAY from the heart, high pressure
Arterioles- The smallest vessels where all three tunicas can be differentiated.
Veins - carry blood TOWARDS the heart, low pressure
Venules- formed when capillary beds unite.
Drain capillary blood and begin the return flow of blood to the heart.
Name the major vessels of the body
- Arteries
Carry blood AWAY from the heart
High pressure - Veins
Carry blood TOWARDS the heart
Low pressure - Capillaries
Allow exchange of gasses and nutrients
Link the arterial and venous systems
Describe the anatomical features of the heart
- The heart is enclosed in a sac like structure called the pericardium
- The heart walls are comprised of 3 layers
- The heart has 4 chambers
- Blood flow through the heart passes through valves and into chambers
- Blood then enters circulation
Describe the flow of blood through the heart
Vena cava Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary valve Pulmonary artery Lungs Right and left pulmonary veins Left atrium Bicuspid valve Left ventricle Aortic valve Aortic trunk (Aorta) Body
Name the vessels going to and from the heart
Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Right pulmonary veins Inferior vena cava left pulmonary veins Left pulmonary artery aorta
Describe the differences in the foetal circulatory system
Foetal system has shunts due to a different circulatory system
-Ductus arteriosus
Connects the pulmonary arteries to the aorta
Bypass the lungs
after birth: becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
-Ductus venosus
foetal blood vessel connecting the umbilical vein to the Inferior Vena Cava
Allows oxygenated blood to bypass the liver
After birth: becomes the ligamentum venosum
-Foramen ovale
shunts highly oxygenated blood from right atrium to left atrium
After birth: becomes the fossa ovalis
What are the two heart sounds and what causes them?
associated with closing of heart valves:
-First sound occurs as AV valves close and signifies beginning of systole
-Second sound occurs when SL valves close at the beginning of ventricular diastole
cause:
Heart murmurs: abnormal heart sounds most often indicative of valve problems
Describe the events that lead to the contraction of cardiac muscle
Rapid depolarization occurs when fast‐opening Na + channels in the sarcolemma open and allow an influx of Na + ions into the cardiac muscle cell.
The phase of heart relaxation is called diastole.
The phase of contraction is called systole.
??
anatomy of intrinsic cardiac contraction
Intrinsic cardiac conduction system (think “internal”)
- A network of noncontractile (autorhythmic) cells
- Initiate and distribute impulses to coordinate the depolarization and contraction of the heart
Describe, in order, the main steps in the spread of depolarisation through the heart
- Ventricular cells fire and propagate action potentials randomly
- Destroys the pumping action of the heart
- Death within three minutes without defibrillation or manual pumping (CPR)
Describe the extrinsic conduction of the heart
(external)
- Autonomic nervous system regulation
- Cardioaccelatory and cardioinhibitory centers
- Hormones
What conditions can be diagnosed via an ECG and what do they mean?
Heart attack - fast heart beat
Cardiac arrest
Irregular heart beat
not enough blood beating around the body
What are the four main body tissues:
- Epithelial- from surfaces & interfaces of body
- Connective- Support communication
- Muscle- movement by contraction
- Nerve- specialized to carry electrical signals- waves of membrane depolarization
Main difference between RBC and other cells in body? Why do these differences occur?
Unlike many other cells, RB have no nucleus and can easily change shape, helping them fit through various blood vessels.
Explain difference between passive and active transport
Passive- No energy required, relies on concentration gradient/ membrane permeability e.g. water/oxygen
Active- Requires energy, moves molecules, often against the concentration gradient. e.g. sodium-potassium pump
During short and endurance exercise, what energy stores are used?
Short exercise= Glycolysis
Endurance exercise= The Kreb cycle
What is the difference between osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis? what joints are mostly affected in each?
Osteoarthritis= Degenerative disease. Affects joints carrying weight e.g. hip, knee, spine Rheumatoid= Autoimmune disease. Common in fingers, wrists, arms and legs
What is a dislocation? How are joints commonly dislocated
When bones are forced out of alignment of the joint
Caused by: serious falls/ playing sports
List the microscopic differences between compact and spongy bone tissue
Compact= hard & dense. Occurs on external part of bone (cortex) Spongy= Sponge-like framework. Arranged in a pattern to resist stress and strain
Define anatomical position
A standardized method of observing imaging the body that allows precise & consistent anatomical references.
What microscopic events occur in osteoporosis?
When osteoblast activity occurs more than osteoclast
Explain difference between the true and false pelvis
True= Contains pelvic colon, rectum, bladder, some reproductive organs. False= Supports intestines. (specifically illium & sigmoid colon) & transmits part of their eight to the anterior wall of the abdomen.
What is the purpose and function of the vertebral column and curvatures?
Vertebral column serve as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle & muscles. Protection of the spinal cord.
Curvatures Increase the resilience & flexibility of the spine. provide flexible and dynamic support
How many processes characterize the vertebral arch? Name them
7 processes
- vertebral foramen
- intervertebral foramina
- pedicles
- lamina
- spinous processes
- transverse processes, articular processes.
What process is located inferior to the sternum? What is unique about this process.
The Xiphoid process
Tip of it resembles a sword
Vital attachment point for several major muscles
What are diastatic skull fractures? In what individuals are they most likely seen?
Fractures along the suture lines in the skull
Most commonly seen in new borns and older infants
At what age do most sutural bones complete fuse? Explain what and how the condition of craniosynostosis can arise.
- fifth year of life
- When one or more of the cranial sutures ossify prematurely, leading to cranial abnormalities
Difference between tendon and ligament
Tendon= joins muscle to bone. Move the bone or structure
ligament= joins bone to bone. Hold structures together and keep them stable.
When extending your elbow, what is the chief muscle used? What nerve innervates this muscle?
Chief muscle= Tricep brachii
Innovative nerve= The radial nerve
What is the role of each of the gluteal muscles?
Act on the hip joint, mainly to facilitate abduction and extension of the thigh but some also assist in the adduction, external rotation and internal rotation of the thigh.
When doing calf raises, what muscles of your leg are you using?
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
What are the three types of muscle, and how can you differentiate all three?
Smooth:
- attaches to hair follicles in the skin
- located in hollow organs other than the heart
- Not striated
- INVOLUNTARY
Skeletal:
- Attached to bone and skin
- Powerful
- Striated
- VOLUNTARY (Conscious control)
- can be involuntary
Cardiac:
- Only in the walls of the heart
- Striated
- Auto-rhythmic because of built in pacemaker
- intercalated discs: wave like conduction
- INVOLUNTARY
Explain the main functions of blood
- Formation of blood clots to prevent excess blood loss
- transportation of oxygen and nutrients to lungs and tissues
- fight infection
Identify the different components of blood and their percentages. What is haematocrit?
Plasma= 54% RBC= 45% WBC= 1% Platelets= 1%
Haematocrit: the calculated volume percentage of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in your blood.
What shape are RBC’s? How does this shape aid in the function of these cells and their relationship with haemoglobin?
-Biconcave shape
-The biconcave shape has a huge surface area relative to volume, squeeze through capillaries.
Therefore gas transport can occur through the haemoglobin
What is the function of EPO? How does EPO regulate erythropoiesis?
EPO- a hormone formed in and secreted by the kidneys
Stimulates (RBC) production in bone marrow
-balance between RBC production and destruction depending on Hormonal controls (Erythropoietin: EPO)
What are the three main types of anemia? give and example for each
Insufficient erythrocytes
-A plastic anaemia
Low Haemoglobin
-Iron deficiency anaemia
Abnormal haemoglobin
-sickle cell
Explain the function of platelets. How are they involved in clot formation?
- Blood clotting
- Megakaryocytes: involved in blood clot formation. each megakaryocyte will produce 1000-3000 platelets, from fragmenting off its cytoplasm.
- Platelets last 8-9 days in the circulating blood clot
What are the three layers of blood vessel, and what does each layer comprise of?
- Tunica intima
- Endothelium lines the lumen of all vessels
- Basement membrane outside the endothelium. - Tunica media
- Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin - Tunica externa
- Collagen fibres and elastin; protect and reinforce
- layer vessels contain “ vasa vasorum” to nourish the externa layer.
List the main difference between the structure and function of arteries and veins
Arteries:
- Carry blood AWAY from the heart
- High pressure
- Deep inside muscle
- thicker walls
Veins:
- Carry blood TOWARDS heart
- Low pressure
- Closer to surface of body
- Thinner walls
- valves
What is atherosclerosis? What factors contribute to this disease?
-A thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by a build up of plague in the vessel wall
Fat, cholesterol and calcium
-caused by increased fatty diets, unhealthy lifestyles and genetics.
