Exam Content (NO LABELLING/ DIAGRAMS) Flashcards
(237 cards)
1
Q
List the functions and classifications of bones and bone tissue
A
Bone tissue:
- Support: skeleton is the structural framework for the body
- Protections: protects many internal organs
- Movement: together bones and muscles produce movement
- Mineral homeostasis: bones store and release minerals (Ca2+, phosphate)
- Blood cell production: within certain bones
2
Q
Name and list the functions of the major cellular organelles, membranes and structures.
A
Organelles-
- Ribosomes:
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
- Golgi Apparatus:
- Mitochondria:
- Lysosomes:
- The cytoskeleton:
Membranes (containing protein groups)-
- Transporters:
- Receptors:
- Enzymes:
3
Q
Importance of mitochondria and ATP generation within human cells?
A
Generator of the cell, play role in aging and many mitochondrial diseases
ATP generation: Transport of proteins and lipids into and out of the cell.
4
Q
List the major tissue types of the body and list the constituents of each tissue
A
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nerve
5
Q
Describe the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of bone
A
Macroscopic=
- Compact bone: hard and dense, external part of bone (cortex)
- Spongy bone: sponge-like framework, arranged in a pattern to resist stress and strain
Microscopic=
- Osteoprogenitor cell: Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum, turns into osteoblast
- Osteoblast: Bone-forming cells
- Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix
- Osteoclasts- Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
6
Q
Describe difference between compact and spongy bone
A
Compact bone= (hard and dense)
- Osteon is the structural unit
- weight bearing
- contains: lamellae, Lacunae, Canaliculi, Central canal and Perforating canals
Spongy= (sponge-like framework)
- consists of trabeculae ‘beams or rods’ and does not contain osteons
- redbone marrow fills spaces between the trabeculae
- resist stress and strain
7
Q
Describe bone development and growth
A
Embryonic development=
- Development requires both types of ossification.
- Ossification doesn’t begin until after 4 wks gestation, with clavicle being the first bone to begin ossification.
- by 12 wk of age there are 275 bones!
Bone growth=
- Interstitial growth: Increases length of long bones
- Appositional growth: Increases thickness and remodelling of all bones
8
Q
Explain regulation of calcium in the body
A
When blood calcium levels fall below normal there are two main hormones the body secretes:
- PTH (parathyroid hormone)
- Calcitriol
9
Q
Describe the pathogenesis of osteoporosis, contributing factors and treatment/prevention.
A
Osteoporosis= loss of bone mass and increased porosity of the bone
Causes= age, reduced PA, Endocrine disorders, genetics, nutritional state, medications (steroids) and post menopausal.
Treatment/ Prevention=
- Calcium, Vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
- Hormone (esrogen) replacement therapy slows bone loss
- Diet (increase dairy products)
- Increase wieght-bearing exercise throughout life
- Limit coffee, smoking and alcohol
10
Q
Identify the anatomical position and define the main anatomical terms
A
Anatomical Position:
- standing upright
- facing observer, head level
- eyes facing forward
- feet flat on floor
- arms at the sides
- palms turned forward (ventral
Anatomical Terms: Superior – Towards the head (top) Inferior – Away from the head (bottom) Proximal – Towards the trunk Distal – Away from the trunk Posterior/dorsal – Towards the back Anterior/ventral – Towards the front Medial – Towards the middle Lateral – Away from the midline
11
Q
Describe the body planes and axes
A
Planes
- Sagittal= left and right
- Coronal/ frontal= front and back
- Transverse= upper and lower
Axes
- Frontal/ coronal
- Sagittal
- Vertical
12
Q
List the different types of joints and name an example for each
A
Hinge: knee, elbow, ankle and interphalangeal joints
Pivot: supination and pronation
Ball and socket: shoulder and hip joint
Condyloid: wrist, between metacarpals and phalanges (metacarpophalangeal)
Plane: thumb joint, sternoclavicular, Inner ear
Saddle: thumb, sternoclavicular joint and Inner ear
13
Q
Describe movements
A
Flexion/extension Adduction/abduction Circumduction Pronation/ supination Planta flexion/ dorsi flexion Inversion/ eversion Elevation/ depression Protraction and retraction
14
Q
Common joint problems
A
Joint disorders=
Arthritis
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Osteoarthritis
15
Q
Name the bones of the wrist and hand
carpal bones nonmonic
A
Carpal (8) Metacarpal (5) Proximal phalanges (5) Intermediate phalanges (4) Distal Phalanges (5)
carpal bones
Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can’t Handle
(bottom (left-right), top (left-right))
16
Q
What are fractures and dislocations?
A
Fracture= broken bone or bone fracture occurs when a force exerted against a bone is stronger than it can structurally withstand. Dislocation= A fall on an abducted and externally rotated arm
17
Q
Define the key landmarks and muscle attachment sites on the bones of the pelvis, femur and tibia
A
Scapula landmarks: 3 fossa= shallow depression 3 angles= corners 3 borders= edges 2 processes= outgrowth or protuberance 2 tubercles= small projection 1 cavity= hollow
Attachment sites:
femur= Greater trochanter, Gluteal tuberosity, Linea aspera
pelvis= fovea capitis to the acetabulum of the pelvis
tibia= lateral malleolus
18
Q
Differences between male and female pelvis
A
Female pelvis: Adapted for childbearing Light and thin Shallow false pelvis Large, circular pelvic brim Acetabulum faces anteriorly Pubic arch is greater than 90
Male Male pelvis Adapted for strength and speed Heavy and thick Deep false pelvis Small, heart shaped brim Acetabulum faces laterally Pubic arch is less than 90°
19
Q
Define the joints of the lower limb
A
Pelvic girdle
Thigh
Leg
Ankle and foot
20
Q
Describe the different arches of the foot and their function
A
- Longitudinal arch
lateral and medial arches - Transverse arch
formed by tarsals and bases of metatarsals
21
Q
Curvatures of the spine
A
Cervical (7) - neck -Secondary Thoracic (12) -thoracic cage - Primary Lumbar (5) - lower back - Secondary Sacrum (5 fused) - pelvis - Primary Coccyx (4 fused)- tail bone
22
Q
Difference between C1, C2 and the other cervical vertebrae
A
C1= No body or spinous process, anterior and posterior arches and two lateral masses C2= Dens projects superiorly into the anterior arch of the atlas
One vertebral and two transverse, slender and often bifid (C2-6)
23
Q
Disorders of the spine
A
- Scoliosis: abnormal lateral curvature of spine
- Kyphosis: excessive curvature of the thoracic spine posteriorly
- Lordosis: Excessive curvature of the lumbar spine anteriorly
24
Q
Describe structure and components of the thoracic cage
A
componens:
- sternum
- ribs
- costal cartilages
- thoracic vertebrae
structure:
Enclose and protect the organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Provide support for the bones of the upper limbs
Play a role in breathing
25
List the main functions of the bones of the skull
1. cranial bones (8 bones)
2. Facial bones (14 bones)
Functions:
- Protect the brain
- Framework of the face
- Cavities for the special sense organs (eyes, nose, ears, mouth)
- Provide the main opening to the external environment (for food and air)
- Secure the teeth (Gomphosis)
- Anchor facial muscles to the face
26
Describe the main cranial bones of the skull, location and function
Parietal bones (2) - sides and roof of the cranium.
Ethmoid bone- separates the nasal cavity from the brain.
Sphenoid bone- forms part of the orbit of the eye, side of the skull, and base of the skull.
Temporal bones (2) - sides of the cranium (temples).
Occipital bone- the most inferior part of the cranium.
Frontal bone- forehead, part of the orbit, and part of the bony nose.
27
What are the 4 main sutures of the skull
Coronal suture—between parietal bones and frontal bone
Sagittal suture—between right and left parietal bones
Lambdoid suture—between parietal bones and occipital bone
Squamous (squamosal) sutures—between parietal and temporal bones on each side of skull
28
3 main types of muscle tissue and the main characteristics of each type
```
Skeletal:
Attached to bones and skin
Striated
Voluntary (i.e., conscious control)
Can be involuntary
Powerful
Primary topic of this lecture
```
Smooth: Attached to hair follicles in the skin
Located in hollow organs other than the heart
Not striated
Involuntary
```
Cardiac:
Only in the walls of the heart
Striated
Involuntary
Auto-rhythmic because of built in pacemaker
Intercalated discs
Wave like conduction
```
29
What is the origin and insertion of a muscle?
Origin= bone that does NOT move when muscle shortens (normally proximal)
Insertion= movable bone (sometimes other muscles or tissues e.g. Glutues maximus - ITB band)
30
Difference between ligament and tendon
Ligament= attaches bone to bone
-short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue.
Tendon= attaches muscle to bone
-flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue.
31
What are the names and function/s of muscles of hip, leg and rotator cuff?
Hip= gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae
-Facilitate weight beaing
Leg= adductors, hamstrings, pectineus, quadriceps and sartorius.
-help you walk, run, jump, stand on your toes and flex your feet
rotator cuff= Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, subscapularis
-stabilizing the shoulder joint, by providing the "fine tuning" movements of the head of the humerus within the glenoid fossa.
32
Origin and insertion of muscles of hip
Hip extensors-
Origin: sacrum and gluteal surface of ilium
Insertion: ¼ inserts into the gluteal tuberosity of the femur and ¾ inserts into the iliotibial tract/band (ITB)
33
What are the movements of the trunk
Flexion/extension
Lateral flexion
Twist/rotation
34
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the trunk
Abdominal muscles- allows trunk to twist/ flex and rotate
External Oblique
Internal Oblique
Rectus Abdominus
Transverse Abdominus
35
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the neck
Sternocleidomastoid: flexes the neck and rotates the head
36
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the head
Masseter- attach zygomatic arch, maxilla & mandible
| Buccinator- assist with chewing/ facial expression
37
Know the names and function/s of muscles of the arm
Flexors
Biceps Brachii
Brachialis
Extensors:
Tricep brachii
38
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the trunk
External oblique
- origin= Serrations from ribs 5-12
- insertion= Iliac crest posteriorly forms the inguinal ligament & rectus sheath
Internal oblique
- origin= Thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament
- insertion= 10th-12th ribs, and linea alba
Rectus Abdominis
- origin= cartilage ribs 5-7, xiphoid process
- insertion- Pubic symphysis and pubic bone
Transverse abdominus
origin= Rib cartilage 7-12, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament
insertion- abdominal sheath, linea alba
39
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the neck
Sternocleidomastoid
- origin= 1) manubrium of the sternum 2) medical clavicle
- insertion= mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Trapezius
40
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the arm
1. flexor carpi radialis
- insertion= 2nd and 3rd metacarpals
2. flexor carpi ulnaris
- insertion= lateral carpal and 5th metacarpal
3. Palmaris longus
- Insertion: palmar aponeurosis
4. Pronator teres
- origin: 1) medial epicondyle of humerous 2) coranoid process of ulna
- insertion: radius shaft
41
Describe the function of muscle tissue
```
Producing body movements
Stabilizing body positions
Maintain posture
Regulating organ volumes
bands of smooth muscle called sphincters
Movement of substances within the body
blood, lymph, urine, air, food and fluids, sperm
Producing heat
involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle (shivering)
```
42
Describe the 3 main types of muscle tissue and the main characteristics of each type
Smooth muscle tissue:
- Attached to hair follicles in the skin
- Located in hollow organs other than the heart
- Not striated
- Involuntary
```
Cardiac muscle tissue:
-Only in the walls of the heart
-Striated
I-nvoluntary
-Auto-rhythmic because of built in p-acemaker
I-ntercalated discs
-Wave like conduction
```
Skeletal muscle tissue:
- Attached to bones and skin
- Striated
- Voluntary (i.e., conscious control)
- Can be involuntary
- Powerful
- Primary topic of this lecture
43
Describe skeletal muscle organisation and composition
-Connective tissue components of muscle
Superficial fascia is loose connective tissue & fat underlying the skin
Deep fascia = dense irregular connective tissue around muscle
-Epimysium
dense regular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle
-Perimysium
fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle fibers)
-Endomysium
fine areolar connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber
All these connective tissue layers extend beyond the muscle belly to form the tendon
44
What are the events involved in skeletal muscle contraction and the sliding filament theory?
Activation: neural stimulation at a neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
Excitation-contraction coupling:
- Generation and propagation of an action potential (AP) along the sarcolemma (membrane surrounding the muscle fiber)
- Final trigger: a brief rise in intracellular Ca2+ levels
45
Define the all-or-none law
If a stimulus is above a certain threshold, a nerve or muscle fibre will fire.
46
define what a motor unit is
The combination of an individual motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that it innervates
47
Describe the main components of blood
```
Plasma
1. Erythrocytes (RBC
buffy coat:
2. Leukocytes (WBC)
3. Platelets
```
48
What are platelets and how do they assist in blood clot formation
Platelets are involved in blood clotting.
Platelets are actually fragments of cells called megakaryocytes.
49
What is Erythropoiesis and EPO
Erythropoiesis: red blood cell production
A hemocytoblast is transformed into a proerythroblast
EPO= hormone controls (Erythropoietin)
50
Blood disorders
Anemia
1. Hemorrhagic anemia
2. Hemolytic anemia
3. Aplastic anemia
4. iron- deficiency anemia
5. pernicious anemia
6. Thalassemia
7. sickle-cell anemia
51
difference between pulmonary and systemic circuits
Pulmonary circulation= circulation around the lungs
purpose: Oxygenation of blood
Removal of carbon dioxide
Systemic circulation= circulation around the body
purpose: Provide tissues with oxygen & nutrients,
Waste removal
52
identify the main components of the vascular system
Pulmonary and systemic circuits
53
Describe the layers of a vessel
1. Tunica intima
Endothelium lines the lumen of all vessels
Basement membrane outside the endothelium
2. Tunica media
Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin
3. Tunica externa/adventitia
Collagen fibers and elastin, protect and reinforce
Larger vessels contain “vasa vasorum” to nourish the external layer
intima is in the inside
54
Explain the differences between arteries, arterioles, venules and veins
Arteries- carry blood AWAY from the heart, high pressure
Arterioles- The smallest vessels where all three tunicas can be differentiated.
Veins - carry blood TOWARDS the heart, low pressure
Venules- formed when capillary beds unite.
Drain capillary blood and begin the return flow of blood to the heart.
55
Name the major vessels of the body
1. Arteries
Carry blood AWAY from the heart
High pressure
2. Veins
Carry blood TOWARDS the heart
Low pressure
3. Capillaries
Allow exchange of gasses and nutrients
Link the arterial and venous systems
56
Describe the anatomical features of the heart
- The heart is enclosed in a sac like structure called the pericardium
- The heart walls are comprised of 3 layers
- The heart has 4 chambers
- Blood flow through the heart passes through valves and into chambers
- Blood then enters circulation
57
Describe the flow of blood through the heart
```
Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary artery
Lungs
Right and left pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aortic trunk (Aorta)
Body
```
58
Name the vessels going to and from the heart
```
Superior vena cava
Right pulmonary artery
Right pulmonary veins
Inferior vena cava
left pulmonary veins
Left pulmonary artery
aorta
```
59
Describe the differences in the foetal circulatory system
Foetal system has shunts due to a different circulatory system
-Ductus arteriosus
Connects the pulmonary arteries to the aorta
Bypass the lungs
after birth: becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
-Ductus venosus
foetal blood vessel connecting the umbilical vein to the Inferior Vena Cava
Allows oxygenated blood to bypass the liver
After birth: becomes the ligamentum venosum
-Foramen ovale
shunts highly oxygenated blood from right atrium to left atrium
After birth: becomes the fossa ovalis
60
What are the two heart sounds and what causes them?
associated with closing of heart valves:
-First sound occurs as AV valves close and signifies beginning of systole
-Second sound occurs when SL valves close at the beginning of ventricular diastole
cause:
Heart murmurs: abnormal heart sounds most often indicative of valve problems
61
Describe the events that lead to the contraction of cardiac muscle
Rapid depolarization occurs when fast‐opening Na + channels in the sarcolemma open and allow an influx of Na + ions into the cardiac muscle cell.
The phase of heart relaxation is called diastole.
The phase of contraction is called systole.
??
62
anatomy of intrinsic cardiac contraction
Intrinsic cardiac conduction system (think “internal”)
- A network of noncontractile (autorhythmic) cells
- Initiate and distribute impulses to coordinate the depolarization and contraction of the heart
63
Describe, in order, the main steps in the spread of depolarisation through the heart
- Ventricular cells fire and propagate action potentials randomly
- Destroys the pumping action of the heart
- Death within three minutes without defibrillation or manual pumping (CPR)
64
Describe the extrinsic conduction of the heart
(external)
* Autonomic nervous system regulation
- Cardioaccelatory and cardioinhibitory centers
- Hormones
65
What conditions can be diagnosed via an ECG and what do they mean?
Heart attack - fast heart beat
Cardiac arrest
Irregular heart beat
not enough blood beating around the body
66
What are the four main body tissues:
1. Epithelial- from surfaces & interfaces of body
2. Connective- Support communication
3. Muscle- movement by contraction
4. Nerve- specialized to carry electrical signals- waves of membrane depolarization
67
Main difference between RBC and other cells in body? Why do these differences occur?
Unlike many other cells, RB have no nucleus and can easily change shape, helping them fit through various blood vessels.
68
Explain difference between passive and active transport
Passive- No energy required, relies on concentration gradient/ membrane permeability e.g. water/oxygen
Active- Requires energy, moves molecules, often against the concentration gradient. e.g. sodium-potassium pump
69
During short and endurance exercise, what energy stores are used?
Short exercise= Glycolysis
Endurance exercise= The Kreb cycle
70
What is the difference between osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis? what joints are mostly affected in each?
```
Osteoarthritis= Degenerative disease. Affects joints carrying weight e.g. hip, knee, spine
Rheumatoid= Autoimmune disease. Common in fingers, wrists, arms and legs
```
71
What is a dislocation? How are joints commonly dislocated
When bones are forced out of alignment of the joint
| Caused by: serious falls/ playing sports
72
List the microscopic differences between compact and spongy bone tissue
```
Compact= hard & dense. Occurs on external part of bone (cortex)
Spongy= Sponge-like framework. Arranged in a pattern to resist stress and strain
```
73
Define anatomical position
A standardized method of observing imaging the body that allows precise & consistent anatomical references.
74
What microscopic events occur in osteoporosis?
When osteoblast activity occurs more than osteoclast
75
Explain difference between the true and false pelvis
```
True= Contains pelvic colon, rectum, bladder, some reproductive organs.
False= Supports intestines. (specifically illium & sigmoid colon) & transmits part of their eight to the anterior wall of the abdomen.
```
76
What is the purpose and function of the vertebral column and curvatures?
Vertebral column serve as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle & muscles. Protection of the spinal cord.
Curvatures Increase the resilience & flexibility of the spine. provide flexible and dynamic support
77
How many processes characterize the vertebral arch? Name them
7 processes
- vertebral foramen
- intervertebral foramina
- pedicles
- lamina
- spinous processes
- transverse processes, articular processes.
78
What process is located inferior to the sternum? What is unique about this process.
The Xiphoid process
Tip of it resembles a sword
Vital attachment point for several major muscles
79
What are diastatic skull fractures? In what individuals are they most likely seen?
Fractures along the suture lines in the skull
Most commonly seen in new borns and older infants
80
At what age do most sutural bones complete fuse? Explain what and how the condition of craniosynostosis can arise.
- fifth year of life
| - When one or more of the cranial sutures ossify prematurely, leading to cranial abnormalities
81
Difference between tendon and ligament
Tendon= joins muscle to bone. Move the bone or structure
ligament= joins bone to bone. Hold structures together and keep them stable.
82
When extending your elbow, what is the chief muscle used? What nerve innervates this muscle?
Chief muscle= Tricep brachii
| Innovative nerve= The radial nerve
83
What is the role of each of the gluteal muscles?
Act on the hip joint, mainly to facilitate abduction and extension of the thigh but some also assist in the adduction, external rotation and internal rotation of the thigh.
84
When doing calf raises, what muscles of your leg are you using?
Gastrocnemius
| Soleus
85
What are the three types of muscle, and how can you differentiate all three?
Smooth:
- attaches to hair follicles in the skin
- located in hollow organs other than the heart
- Not striated
- INVOLUNTARY
Skeletal:
- Attached to bone and skin
- Powerful
- Striated
- VOLUNTARY (Conscious control)
- can be involuntary
Cardiac:
- Only in the walls of the heart
- Striated
- Auto-rhythmic because of built in pacemaker
- intercalated discs: wave like conduction
- INVOLUNTARY
86
Explain the main functions of blood
- Formation of blood clots to prevent excess blood loss
- transportation of oxygen and nutrients to lungs and tissues
- fight infection
87
Identify the different components of blood and their percentages. What is haematocrit?
```
Plasma= 54%
RBC= 45%
WBC= 1%
Platelets= 1%
```
Haematocrit: the calculated volume percentage of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in your blood.
88
What shape are RBC's? How does this shape aid in the function of these cells and their relationship with haemoglobin?
-Biconcave shape
-The biconcave shape has a huge surface area relative to volume, squeeze through capillaries.
Therefore gas transport can occur through the haemoglobin
89
What is the function of EPO? How does EPO regulate erythropoiesis?
EPO- a hormone formed in and secreted by the kidneys
Stimulates (RBC) production in bone marrow
-balance between RBC production and destruction depending on Hormonal controls (Erythropoietin: EPO)
90
What are the three main types of anemia? give and example for each
Insufficient erythrocytes
-A plastic anaemia
Low Haemoglobin
-Iron deficiency anaemia
Abnormal haemoglobin
-sickle cell
91
Explain the function of platelets. How are they involved in clot formation?
- Blood clotting
- Megakaryocytes: involved in blood clot formation. each megakaryocyte will produce 1000-3000 platelets, from fragmenting off its cytoplasm.
- Platelets last 8-9 days in the circulating blood clot
92
What are the three layers of blood vessel, and what does each layer comprise of?
1. Tunica intima
- Endothelium lines the lumen of all vessels
- Basement membrane outside the endothelium.
2. Tunica media
- Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin
3. Tunica externa
- Collagen fibres and elastin; protect and reinforce
- layer vessels contain " vasa vasorum" to nourish the externa layer.
93
List the main difference between the structure and function of arteries and veins
Arteries:
- Carry blood AWAY from the heart
- High pressure
- Deep inside muscle
- thicker walls
Veins:
- Carry blood TOWARDS heart
- Low pressure
- Closer to surface of body
- Thinner walls
- valves
94
What is atherosclerosis? What factors contribute to this disease?
-A thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by a build up of plague in the vessel wall
Fat, cholesterol and calcium
-caused by increased fatty diets, unhealthy lifestyles and genetics.
95
What is the main function of the Golgi Body
Packaging materials
96
What energy process/es occur in the mitochondria?
Electron Chain Transport and Krebs cycle
97
The anatomical position is defined as....
Standing upright, facing observer, eyes facing forward, hands by side, feet flat on floor, palms facing anteriorly (front)
98
True or False. Leukocytes make up part of the buffy coat.
TRUE
99
Which of the following is the abnormal lateral curvature of the spine
Scoliosis
100
What type of joint is a tooth in socket?
Gomphosis
101
Which of the following is not a long bone?
| Humerus, Malleus, clavicle, radius
Malleus
102
Which is NOT a rotator cuff muscle?
Subscapularis, Teres minor, Pronator Teres, Supraspinatus
Supraspinatus
103
What is erythropoiesis?
Production of RBCs
104
Which curvatures of the spine are primary?
Thoracic and sacral
105
Which of the following is not a cause of anaemia?
Insufficient erythrocytes
Low haemoglobin content
Abnormal haemoglobin
High number of erythrocytes
High number of erythrocytes
106
The tendon of which muscle runs through the intertubercular sulcus/ groove?
Biceps brachii
107
What is an osteoclast?
Bone cell that breaks down and reabsorbs boney matrix
108
When extending the forearm, where does the olecranon process slide into?
Olecranon fossa
109
Circumduction=
Combination of flexion/extension/adduction/abduction
110
What is the prime mover of extension at the elbow?
Triceps bachii
111
What plane divides body into left and right halves?
Sagittal
112
Which of the following statements about the nucleus is true?
Only organelle to contain DNA
Do no vary in size
Some cells have multiple
Responsible for ATP production
Some cells have multiple nucleus
113
The arrangement of bones and muscles of the pectoral girdle is so there is a high degree of ..... but a low level of .....
Movement: stability
114
Which forms the largest portion of the coxal bone/ os coxae
Ilium
115
Which muscle inserts via the calcaneal tendon?
Gastrocnemius
116
Which is the deepest of the 4 abdominal muscles
Transversus abdominis
External obliques
Internal obliques
Rectus abdominis
Transversus abdominis
117
True or False. The female pelvis has a smaller pubic arch than a male pelvis?
FALSE
118
What is the insertion of the rectus femoris
Patella via the quadriceps tendon, and tibial tuberosity via the patellae tendon
119
What joint/s does the vastus lateralis cross?
Knee
120
Which type of muscle is characterised by intercalated discs?
Cardiac
121
True or false. Arteries, veins and capillaries all have tunica intima, tunica media and tunica externa?
FALSE
122
Which leukocyte is involved in the adaptive immune system?
Lymphocytes
123
What are the two circulatory pathways of blood through the body?
Systemic and Pulmonary
124
Which of the following is not extrinsic regulation of the heart?
Hormones
ANS via cardioinhibitory and acceleratory centres in the medulla oblongata
Autorhythmic cells
Thyroxin via the thyroid gland
Autorhythmic cells
125
Difference between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes= single celled
e.g. bacteria
Eukaryotes= multi cellular
e.g. plant, animal cells (more complicated)
larger, more complicated genetic machinery
126
What are Erythrocytes and Leukocytes?
Erythrocytes are RBC
| Leukocytes are WBC
127
Name the two types of ossification
Intramembranous ossification
| endochonral ossification
128
What are the rotator cuff muscles?
Supraspinatus, subscapularis, infraspinatus, teres minor
129
List the main functions of the Respiratory system
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
Inspiration: movement of air rich of O2 into the lungs through the airways
Expiration: movement of air rich of CO2 out of the lungs
2. External respiration
3. Regulation of the pH of body fluids
4. Olfactory function (nose)
5. Sound production (larynx)
130
Describe the functional anatomy of the respiratory system
- Respiratory zone: site of gas exchange
* Microscopic structures
- Conducting zone: conduits to gas exchange sites
* Channel for conveying air
* Includes all other respiratory structures
- Respiratory muscles: diaphragm and other muscles that promote ventilation
131
Describe how voice production occurs
Respiratory System, also known as “breath support”, includes: lungs, ribcage, chest muscles, diaphragm, and windpipe.
Phonatory System, also known as the larynx or “voice box”, where sound is produced includes: larynx and, specifically, the vocal folds (also called “vocal cords”).
Resonatory System, also known as the “vocal tract”, includes: throat, nasal passages, sinuses, and mouth
132
Describe how voice production occurs
Respiratory System, also known as “breath support”, includes: lungs, ribcage, chest muscles, diaphragm, and windpipe.
Phonatory System, also known as the larynx or “voice box”, where sound is produced includes: larynx and, specifically, the vocal folds (also called “vocal cords”).
Resonatory System, also known as the “vocal tract”, includes: throat, nasal passages, sinuses, and mouth
133
Name the four layers of the trachea and what they comprise
Mucosa: ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells
Submucosa: connective tissue with seromucous glands
Hyaline cartilage: 16-20 incomplete rings (semi rigid support)
Adventitia: outermost layer made of connective tissue that encases the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
134
What structures make the conducting and respiratory zones?
Conducting=
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
Respiratory=
- respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveolar sacs
135
Describe alveoli and the different cells that are present in alveoli
The alveoli are surrounded by fine elastic fibers
House alveolar macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces sterile
Two types of alveolar epithelial cells (type I and type II)
136
Relate Boyle’s law to the events of respiration
It explains that when the volume of the lung increases during inspiration, the pressure in the lung will decrease
Boyle's law
The pressure of a gas is defined as the force that gas exerts on the walls of its ‘container’
The pressure and volume of a gas in a closed container are inversely proportionate
Mechanical processes that depend on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
Volume changes pressure changes
Pressure changes gases flow to equalize pressure
137
Be familiar with intraplumonary and intrapleural pressure, and the relationship between them
Intrapulmonary pressure – pressure within the alveoli
Intrapleural pressure – pressure within the pleural space
The difference between these two is the transpulmonary pressure
138
Explain how oxygen enters blood, and subsequently binds to Hb for transport around the body
Most oxygen in the blood is transported bound to haemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells.
139
Explain the events occurring during inspiration and expiration
Inspiration: gases flow into the lungs
Expiration: gases exit the lungs
Inspiration: movement of air rich of O2 into the lungs through the airways
Expiration: movement of air rich of CO2 out of the lungs
140
Understand the importance of airway resistance, alveolar surface tension and lung compliance
Inspiratory muscles consume energy (active process) to overcome factors that hinder air passage and normal pulmonary ventilation
ventilation is influenced by it
141
Using an examples, explain how the respiratory system is affected by disease and/or toxic substances
1. Fibrosis - Tuberculosis
Infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Large lesions leading to tissue death
Heal by fibrosis/scarring.
Decreased compliance.
Lungs harder to inflate (forced inspiration)
2. Increased Lung compliance (abnormal)
3. Emphysema
4. Smoking
142
Describe the control of the respiratory system
an automatic and rhythmic act produced by networks of neurons in the hindbrain (the pons and medulla)
143
Identify the main anatomical features of the heart
four chambers:
two upper chambers known as the left atrium and right atrium
two lower chambers called the left and right ventricles.
It is also made up of four valves: the tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral and aortic valves
144
Describe the flow of blood through the heart
```
Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary artery
Lungs
Right and left pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aortic trunk (Aorta)
Body
```
145
Understand the role and the differences between each of the heart valves
Atrioventricular (AV) valves*
Prevent backflow into the atria when ventricles contract
Semilunar (SL) valves^
Prevent backflow into the ventricles when ventricles relax
146
What is the coronary circulation, and what main vessels are involved?
The functional blood supply to the heart muscle itself – coronary vessels
147
Describe the differences in the foetal circulatory system
Ductus arteriosus
Connects the pulmonary arteries to the aorta
Bypass the lungs
after birth: becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
Ductus venosus
foetal blood vessel connecting the umbilical vein to the Inferior Vena Cava
Allows oxygenated blood to bypass the liver
After birth: becomes the ligamentum venosum
Foramen ovale
shunts highly oxygenated blood from right atrium to left atrium
After birth: becomes the fossa ovalis
148
A smoker sees his doctor because he has a persistent cough and is short of breath after very little exertion. What diagnosis will the doctor make and what can the person expect if he does not quit smoking?
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
| If they don't stop smoking: Coughing, breathing difficulty, mucus (sputum) production and wheezing.
149
Define anatomical dead space. What is the relationship between anatomical and alveolar dead space? Which value is likely to increase during lung pathology?
Anatomical dead space: Conducting zones (airways) in lungs containing air but don't undergo respiratory exchange between gas and blood.
Physiological Dead Space: Anatomical dead space plus alveolar dead space (alveoli that don't participate in respiratory exchange)
-Inhalation increases
150
The contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles begins inspiration. Explain exactly what happens, in terms of volume and pressure changes in the lungs, when these muscles contract.
- The external intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribcage upwards and outwards. The diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards.
- Lung volume INCREASES & air pressure inside DECREASES
151
Difference between atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, and intrapleural pressure. Which of these is always negative in a healthy individual during normal breathing? What happens if intrapleural pressure becomes equal to atmospheric pressure?
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit of area exerted against a surface by the weight of the air above the surface i.e. the “weight” of the atmosphere
Intrapulmonary pressure – pressure within the alveoli
Intrapleural pressure – pressure within the pleural space (Always NEGATIVE)
intrapleural pressure becomes equal to atmospheric pressure, the lungs collapse
152
What are the two zones of the respiratory system? What anatomical structures belong to each?
conducting zones (nose to bronchioles) form a path for conduction of the inhaled gases and respiratory zone (alveolar duct to alveoli) where
153
list some protective mechanisms for the respiratory system
Nasal cavity- hairs and mucus trap small particles, viruses, bacteria, dust, and dirt to prevent entry.
154
Explain the electrical conduction pathway in the heart.
The electrical impulse travels from the sinus node to the aventricular node (AV node). There, impulses slow down for a short period of time, then continue down the conduction pathway via the bundle of His into Ventricals.
155
What is Autorhythmicity in cardiac muscle cells? What drives it?
Some CMC are "self-excitable" allowing for rhythmic waves of contraction to adjacent cells throughout the heart. INDEPENDANT.
WHAT DRIVES IT? when the membrane potential reaches approx. -60mV
156
Try the patellar reflex on a partner. How does your reflex compare to others?
My patellar had a smaller reflex and went slower than partner. However similar to other people
157
Which reflex arc is faster, monosynaptic or polysynaptic? Why
Monosynaptic is a faster reflex arc because it has only one reflex.
One single synapse
Polysynaptic has multiple
158
Ralph sustained a leg injury in a bowling accident and had to use crutches. Unfortunately, he never took the time to learn how to use them properly. After two weeks of use, he noticed his fingers were becoming numb. Then he noticed his arms were getting weaker and tingling. What could his problem be?
Radial Nerve Neuropraxia
- Incorrect use of crutches, radial nerve is close to bone in upper arm - therefore vulnerable to injury. (weight on shoulders)
- problem with the nerve that travels from armpit down back of arm to hand
- causes wrist drop, tingling, numbness ect.
159
What is the normal response of the plantar reflex? What is Babinski's sign and what does it indicate?
Normal response- on lateral part of side of sole of foot with fairly sharp object, produces plantar flexion of the big toe. Also flexion and adduction of other toes.
Babinski's sign- stimulation of the lateral plantar aspect of the foot leads to extension (dorsiflexion or upward movement) of big toe (hallux).
160
Distinguish between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes and between ipsilateral and contralateral reflex responses.
```
Monosynaptic= One single chemical reflex
Polysynaptic= One or more interneurons connect afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) signals.
```
```
Ipsilateral= Structures on same side of body or brain
Contralateral= structures on opposite sides of brain
```
161
List and describe the functions of the three cranial nerves that serve the muscles of the eye.
III Oculomotor - eye movement and constriction of the pupils ( narrower)
IV Trochlear- eye movement, smallest cranial nerve
VI Abducens- Motor nerve of eye movement. Abducts eyeball (lateral movement)
162
If Cranial nerve is damaged, can it regenerate? Why?
- If cranial nerve is completely cut. It can NOT be repaired
- If it is stretched or bruised but nerve remains intact. It CAN recover
....
163
What causes colour blindness? Why is it more prevalent in males?
-Eye accidents or injuries, diabetes, blocked blood vessels, lazy eye ect.
-Males are more common because its passed down the X chromosome. Males have only one X chromosome from their mother. Therefore more likely for the X to have a colour blind gene.
Whereas females have 2 (XX) both would need that gene.
164
Name the bones of the wrist and hand . pneumonic
Radius = thumb Ulna= small
```
Carpal bones (8)
Metacarpal bones (=5)
Proximal phalanges (5)
Intermediate phalanges (4)
Distal phalanges (5)
```
Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can't Handle
bottom up, left left
165
Name the bones of the upper limb
```
Humorous
Elbow
Radius
Ulna
Wrist
Thumb
```
166
Name bones of lower limb
```
Femur
Patella
Lateral condyle
Medial condyle
Head
Tibial tuberosity
Tibia
Fibula
Interosseous membrane
Anterior border (CREST)
Medial Malleolus
Lateral Malleolus
Talus
Calcaneus
```
167
Describe the different arches of the foot and their function
Longitudinal arches- lateral and medial arches
Transverse arch- formed by tarsals and bases of metatarsals
Medial longitudinal arch
168
List the differences between the types of vertebrae
Cervical vertebrae- (7) - neck SECONDARY
Thoracic vertebrae (12)- thoracic cage PRIMARY
Lumbar vertebrae (5)- lower back SECONDARY
Sacrum (5 fused)- pelvis PRIMARY
Coccyz (4 fused) - tail bone
169
Differences between C1, C2 and the other cervical vertebrae
C1 - Superior surfaces of lateral mass articulate with the occipital condyles
C2 - Dens projects superiorly into the anterior arch of the atlas
170
What are the disorders of the spine
Scoliosis- abnormal lateral curvature of the spine
Kyphosis- Excessive curvature of the thoracic spine posteriorly
Lordosis- Excessive curvature of the lumbar spine anteriorly
171
Describe the structure and components of the thoracic cage
```
structure=
sternum
ribs
costal cartilages
thoracic vertebrae
```
Components=
PROTECT the organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities
SUPPORT for the bones of the upper limbs
Play and role in BREATHING
172
List main functions for bones of the skull
1. Cranial bones (8 bones)
- protect the brain
2. Facial bones (14 bones)
- framework of the face
- cavities for special sense organs (eyes, nose, ears, mouth)
- Provide the main opening for the external environment (for food and air)
- secure the teeth (Gomphosis)
- Anchor facial muscles to the face
173
Describe the main cranial bones of the skull, their location and function
Parietal bones (2) - sides and roof of the cranium. Borders of it form joins with the other bones called sutures.
Ethmoid bone - part of base of skull. Separates the nasal cavity from the brain
Sphenoid bone - part of the orbit of the eye, side of the skull, base of skull. Houses pituitary gland.
Temporal bones (2) - sides of cranium (temples). House ear structures, form part of cheek bone, with zygomatic process.
Occipital bone - Most inferior part of cranium. Several foramina for the entry and exit of vessels and the spinal cord.
Frontal bone - forehead, part of the orbit and part of bony nose
PEST OF 6
174
What are the 4 sutures of the skull?
1. frontal suture
2. Coronal suture
3. Sagittal suture
4. Lambdoid suture
175
What are the 3 main types of muscle tissue and the main characteristics of each?
1. Cardiac - INVOLUNTARY - Heart
2. Skeletal - VOLUNTARY - Leg
3. Smooth - INVOLUNTARY Internal Organs
176
What is the origin and insertion of a muscle?
```
origin= bone that does NOT move when muscle shortens (normally proximal)
Insertion= moveable bone (sometimes other muscles or tissues) e.g. Gluteus Maximus - ITB band)
```
177
Difference between ligament and tendon
ligament = bone to bone
-A short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue
tendon = muscle to bone
-A flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue
178
What are the movements of the trunk
Flexion/ extension
Lateral flexion
Twist/ Rotation
179
Names and function/s of muscles of the trunk, neck, head and arm
Trunk muscles-
- External obliques: twist/ flex & rotate trunk
- Internal oblique: Opposing twisting motion to ext. obliques
- Rectus abdominis: Flexion of trunk
- Transverse abdominus: Assists in giving birth
Neck muscles-
Sternocleidomastoid: flexes neck, rotates head
Head muscles-
Masseter: attaches to zygomatic arch, maxilla & mandible.
Buccinator: assists with chewing and facial expression
Arm muscles-
Biceps brachii: flexes elbow, supinates arm, flexes shoulder, Brachialis: flexes elbow
Triceps brachii: extends elbow
180
Name the origin and insertion of muscles of the trunk, neck, head and arm
-External Obliques- origin= Serrations from ribs. Insertion=Iliac crest posteriorly, anteriorly forms the inguinal ligament and rectus sheath
-Internal obliques-
Origin= Thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament
Insertion= 10th-12th ribs, and linea alba
-Transverse abdominus-
Origin= Rib cartilage 7-12, thoracolumbar fascia, iliac crest,
inguinal ligament
Insertion= Abdominal sheath, linea alba
-Rectus abdominus
origin= cartilage ribs 5-7, xiphoid process
insertion= Pubic symphysis and pubic bone
-Sternocleidomastoid-
Origin= Manubrium of the sternum, medial clavicle
Insertion= Mastoid process of the temporal bone
-Bicep brachii-
origin= long head- supraglenoid tuberosity. Short head- coracoid
Insertion= Radial tuberosity on radius (anterior)
-Brachialis-
Origin= Anterior surface of humerus, distal to deltoid insertion
Inserts= Coronoid process of ulna
-Triceps brachii-
Inserts= Olecranon of ulna
181
Define the functions of muscle tissue
```
Producing body movements
Stabilizing body positions
Maintain posture
Regulating organ volumes
bands of smooth muscle called sphincters
Movement of substances within the body
blood, lymph, urine, air, food and fluids, sperm
Producing heat
involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle (shivering)
```
182
Describe the main components of blood?
Plasma 55% - Water, proteins, electrolytes, gases, nutrients
RBC (Erythrocytes) 45% -biconcave, lack organelles (no nucleus, no mitochondria)
-Buffy coat <1%
WBC (Leukocytes) : involved in the immune system
Platelets : involved in blood clotting
183
Describe the main types of blood cells and their functions?
1. Erythrocytes (RBC) - predominately in gas transport through haemoglobin.
1. Leukocytes (WBC) - predominately in gas transport through haemoglobin. 1.
Innate immune system = no memory
Adaptive immune system = memory
2. Platelets - involved in blood clotting
184
What are platelets and how do they assist in blood clot formation?
Platelets are fragments of cells called megakaryocytes. Each megakaryocyte will produce 1000-3000 platelets, from fragmenting off its cytoplasm. Platelets last 8-9 days in the circulating blood.
185
Describe the different types of anaemia?
1.Insufficient erythrocytes
Hemorrhagic anemia: acute or chronic loss of blood
Hemolytic anemia: erythrocytes are destroyed faster than they can be made
Aplastic anemia: body stops producing enough new erythrocytes
2. Low haemoglobin content
-Iron deficiency anaemia
Inadequate intake of iron-containing foods
Secondary result of hemorrhagic anemia
-Pernicious anaemia
Deficiency of vitamin B12 , which is essential for RBC formation
Lack of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of B12
3. Abnormal hemoglobin
Absent or faulty globin chain
RBCs are thin, delicate, and deficient in hemoglobin
Sickle-cell anemia
abnormal hemoglobin (HbS)
Live 10-20 days only
186
What is erythropoiesis and EPO
Erythropoiesis: red blood cell production
A hemocytoblast is transformed into a proerythroblast
Erythropoietin (EPO): a hormone formed in and secreted by the kidneys.
Released by the kidney in response to low oxygen levels
(hypoxia).
187
What are the disorders of the blood?
1. Haemophilia: group of hereditary genetic disorders that affect coagulation
2. Malaria: parasite that enters blood and affects RBC
188
Difference between pulmonary and systemic circuits
Pulmonary circulation= circulation around LUNGS
Oxygenation of blood, Removal of carbon dioxide
Systemic circulation= circulation around BODY
Primary purpose: Provide tissues with oxygen & nutrients,
Waste removal
189
Identify the main components of the vascular system
Arteries- Carry blood AWAY from the heart
High pressure
Veins- Carry blood TOWARDS the heart
Low pressure
Capillaries- Allow exchange of gasses and nutrients
Link the arterial and venous systems
190
Describe the layers of a vessel
1. Tunica intima - Endothelium lines the lumen of all vessels
2. Tunica media - Smooth muscle and sheets of elastin
3. Tunica externa/adventitia - Collagen fibers and elastin, protect and reinforce
191
Explain the differences between arteries, arterioles, venules and veins and identify histological differences
Arteries - named according to direction of blood flow (AWAY) from heart to
arterioles.
arterioles - Regulate the flow of blood into capillary networks
smaller than arteries and provide the link between the arteries and
the capillaries.
venules - Venules take blood from the capillaries to the veins
Veins - named according to direction of blood flow (TOWARDS) heart
Decrease in size down to capillaries then increase in size up to heart
192
Name the major vessels of the body
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
193
Identify the main anatomical features of the heart
divided into four chambers.
two chambers on the top (atrium, plural atria)
two on the bottom (ventricles), one on each side of the heart.
Right atrium: Two large veins deliver oxygen-poor blood to your right atrium. The superior vena cava carries blood from your upper body.
194
Describe the events that lead to the contraction of cardiac muscle
Binding of the myosin head to ( ATP ), then pulling actin filaments to the centre of the sarcomere.
the mechanical force of contraction
195
Role and the differences between each of the heart valves
Tricuspid valve. Located between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
Pulmonary valve. Located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
Mitral valve (bicuspid). Located between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
Aortic valve.
196
Name the vessels going to and from the heart, and their function
Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to all of the body's tissues. They branch several times, becoming smaller and smaller as they carry blood farther from the heart.
Capillaries. These are small, thin blood vessels that connect the arteries and the veins.
197
Describe the differences in the foetal circulatory system
Different circulatory system
Ductus arteriosus
Connects the pulmonary arteries to the aorta
Bypass the lungs
after birth: becomes the ligamentum arteriosum
Ductus venosus
foetal blood vessel connecting the umbilical vein to the Inferior Vena Cava
Allows oxygenated blood to bypass the liver
After birth: becomes the ligamentum venosum
Foramen ovale
shunts highly oxygenated blood from right atrium to left atrium
After birth: becomes the fossa ovalis
198
Name the two heart sounds, what causes them
First sound occurs as AV VALVES CLOSE and signifies beginning of systole
Second sound occurs when SL VALVES CLOSE at the beginning of ventricular diastole
Caused by: Closure of the heart valves
First sound occurs when the mitral and tricuspid valves close
Second when the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves close.
199
Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system
Initiate and distribute impulses to coordinate the depolarization and contraction of the heart
Two main types of cells in the heart:
Autorhythmic cells
Contractile cells
200
Describe the extrinsic conduction of the heart
Autonomic nervous system regulation
Cardioaccelatory and cardioinhibitory centers
Hormones
201
Relate the main waveforms (P, QRS and T) and segments of the ECG to the flow of electrical activity through the heart
.The QRS complex represents depolarization of the ventricles and is followed by ventricular contraction. The T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles and marks the beginning of ventricular relaxation.
202
What conditions can be diagnosed by an ECG? and what do they mean?
ECG= Electrocardiogram
conditions:
arrhythmias – where the heart beats too slowly, too quickly, or irregularly.
coronary heart disease – where the heart's blood supply is blocked or interrupted by a build-up of fatty substances.
heart attacks – where the supply of blood to the heart is suddenly blocked.
203
List the main functions of the respiratory system
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
Inspiration
Expiration
2. External respiration – Pulmonary gas exchange: O2 and CO2 exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood
3. Regulation of the pH of body fluids
4. Olfactory function (nose)
5. Sound production (larynx)
204
Describe the functional anatomy of the respiratory system
1. Conducting zone: conducts air into the lungs
Other functions: Air is adjusted to body temperature, humidified and filtered
2. Respiratory zone: site of gas exchange
Microscopic structures: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli
205
Describe how voice production occurs
The vocal folds produce sound when they come together and then vibrate as air passes through them during exhalation of air from the lungs.
Respiratory System, also known as “breath support”, includes: lungs, ribcage, chest muscles, diaphragm, and windpipe.
Phonatory System, also known as the larynx or “voice box”, where sound is produced includes: larynx and, specifically, the vocal folds (also called “vocal cords”).
Resonatory System, also known as the “vocal tract”, includes: throat, nasal passages, sinuses, and mouth
206
Name the four layers of the trachea and what they comprise (of the wall)
Mucosa: ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells
Submucosa: connective tissue with seromucous glands
Hyaline cartilage: 16-20 incomplete rings (semi rigid support)
Adventitia: outermost layer made of connective tissue that encases the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
207
What structures make the conducting and respiratory zones?
1. Conducting zone- Macroscopic: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
2. Respiratory zone- Microscopic structures: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli
208
Describe alveoli and the different cells that are present in alveoli
- They are where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out
- The alveoli are surrounded by fine elastic fibers (change in size)
cells:
House alveolar macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces sterile
Two types of alveolar epithelial cells (type I -squamous epithelial and type II- cuboidal cells) make up alveolar walls, which fuse to capillaries to form the respiratory membrane for gaseous exchange
209
Relate Boyle's law to the events of respiration
According to Boyle's law, if a given amount of gas has a constant temperature, increasing its volume decreases its pressure, and vice-versa. When you inhale, muscles increase the size of your thoracic (chest) cavity and expand your lungs.
210
Define intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure, and give the relationship between them
The force exerted by gasses...
Intrapulmonary pressure= pressure within the alveoli
Intrapleural pressure= pressure within the pleural space
Typically, intrapleural pressure is lower, or negative to, intra-alveolar pressure.
The transpulmonary pressure is the difference between these two
211
Explain how oxygen enters blood, and subsequently binds to Hb for transport around the body.
Most oxygen in the blood is transported bound to haemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells.
Heme portion of haemoglobin contains 4 iron atoms – each can bind one O2 molecule.
Reaction reverses as blood flows through the capillaries in the lungs
212
Explain the events occurring during inspiration and expiration
-Inspiration-
1. Inspiratory muscles
contract
2. Thoracic cavity volume
increases.
3. Lungs are stretched;
intrapulmonary volume
increases.
4. Intrapulmonary pressure
drops (to –1 mm Hg).
5. Air (gases) flows into
lungs down its pressure
gradient until intrapulmonary
pressure is 0 (equal to
atmospheric pressure).
-Expiration-
Inspiratory muscles relax
Thoracic cavity volume decreases
Elastic lungs recoil and intrapulmonary volume decreases
Ppul rises (to +1 mm Hg)
Air flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient until Ppul = 0
Note: forced expiration is an active process: it uses abdominals (external/internal obliques, transversus abdominis, rectus abdominus), internal intercostal muscles, and quadratus lumborum.
213
What is the importance of airway resistance, alveolar surface tension and lung compliance?
They all.....
Inspiratory muscles consume energy (active process) to overcome factors that hinder air passage and normal pulmonary ventilation
caused diseases
214
Using examples, explain how the respiratory system is affected by disease and/or toxic substances?
toxic substances =
-smoking: Increases amount of neutrophils and macrophages in lung (WBCs)
Chronic inflammation
Promotes neutrophil degranulation – destroys tissue architecture
-decreased lung compliance
1. Fibrosis - Tuberculosis
Infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Large lesions leading to tissue death
-increased lung compliance
Often secondary to obstructive lung disease.
Elastin is degraded (destruction of lung tissue)
Loss of elastic recoil.
Emphysema
Increase beyond the normal in the size of the airspaces distal to the terminal bronchiole (in the respiratory zone)
215
Describe the control of the respiratory system
Respiratory muscles controlled by nerve impulses from the respiratory centre in the brain stem
Breathing is an automatic and rhythmic act produced by networks of neurons in the hindbrain (the pons and medulla).
1. Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
2. Ventral respiratory group (VRG) (inspiratory area)
216
What is the basic organisation of the nervous system?
CNS (central nervous system)
-Brain, spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
Sensory division and motor division
217
Describe the divisions autonomic nervous system (ANS) and what they are involved in
Two functional subdivisions:
Sympathetic- Mobilizes the body during activity; is the “fight-or-flight” system
Parasympathetic- Promotes maintenance activities and conserves body energy
218
List the different types of neuroglia and their main function
Astrocytes (CNS) - structural support
Microglia (CNS) - immune system
Ependymal cells (CNS) - protection for CNS
Oligodendrocytes (CNS) - insultation for CNS
Satellite cells (PNS) - protection for PNS
Schwann cells (PNS) - insulation for PNS
219
Describe the anatomy of a neuron and how it functions to transmit signals
Sensory (afferent)
Transmit impulses from sensory receptors toward the CNS
Motor (efferent)
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors
Interneurons (association neurons)
Shuttle signals between sensory and motor neurons; most are entirely within the CNS
220
Explain why myelin is so important, and what happens when myelin sheaths become non-functional
Myelin is so important:
Segmented protein-lipoid sheath around most long or large-diameter axons
It functions to:
Protect and electrically insulate the axon
Increase speed of nerve impulse transmission
When myelin sheaths become non-functional: Shunting and short-circuiting of nerve impulses occurs. Impulse conduction slows and eventually ceases
221
Describe a synapse and how it occurs
A junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron:
To another neuron, or
To an effector cell
- Synapses are essentially neuronal junctions:
1) Electrical
2) Chemical
- A neuron that transmits an impulse towards a synapse= pre-synaptic neuron
- A neuron that transmits an impulse away from a synapse= post-synaptic neuron
- The minute gap between the two neuron =synaptic cleft.
- The transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse is by means of a chemical called a neurotransmitter
222
Name the different spinal nerves and plexi (numbers per each)
31 pairs of mixed spinal nerves
```
The four plexi:
Cervical Plexus 8
Brachial Plexus 12
Lumbar Plexus 5
Sacral Plexus 5
Coccygeal 1
```
???
223
Briefly describe the disorders of the PNS and of the individual nerves
DO THE INDIVIDUAL NERVES
Pin and needles
Commonly caused by putting pressure on a specific part of the arm or leg and compressing nerves! Or their blood supply
Shingles
Viral infection
Stems from childhood chicken pox and often brought on by stress
Cold sores
Most common of all
Blisters and ulcers
On the lips, inside the mouth
Genital herpes
Viral infection, usually spread by sexual contact
About 20% of adults are likely carriers
224
Describe the organisation of the Peripheral nervous system
Sensory division
Motor division ---- Somatic NS , Autonomic NS
Autonomic NS ---- Parasympathetic NS , Sympathetic NS
225
What are the main types of sensory receptors and what stimuli they respond to
1. Mechanoreceptors : mechanical force
2. Thermoreceptors temperature
3. Photoreceptors : light
4. Chemoreceptors : Chemical
5. Nociceptors : pain sensors
226
What are the divisions and distribution of the 12 cranial nerves and pneumonic
```
I: Olfactory (sensory)
II: Optic (sensory)
III: Oculomotor (motor)
IV: Trochlear (motor)
V: Trigeminal (both)
VI: Abducens (motor)
VII: Facial (both)
VIII: Vestibulocochlear (sensory)
IX: Glossopharyngeal (both)
X: Vagus (both)
XI: Accessory (motor)
XII: Hypoglossal (motor)
```
```
I: On
II: Occasion
III: Our
IV: Trusty
V: Truck
VI: Acts
VII: Funny
VIII: Very
IX: Good
X: Vehicle
XI: Any
XII: How
```
```
I: Some
II: Say
III: Marry
IV: Money
V: But
VI: My
VII: Brother
VIII: Says
IX: Big
X: Brains
XI: Matter
XII: More
```
227
What is the process of olfaction and which regions of the brain receive sensory input via the olfactory (I) nerve
Smell differentiation depends on the pattern of activation of different olfactory receptor neurons
begins when volatile molecules enter the nasal cavity and activate receptors in the olfactory epithelium (OE).
Olfactory cortex
228
Describe the physiology behind vision and the how the optic nerve (II) functions in vision
The optic nerve is critical to your vision.
It's an extension of your central nervous system, which includes your brain and spine.
The optic nerve transmits electrical impulses from your eyes to your brain. Your brain processes this sensory information so that you can see.
229
Differentiate between special and general senses, and how they work
Special senses have a sense organ (vision, hearing, taste, balance and smell
General senses have no sense organs and have receptors throughout the body, but particularly in the skin
230
What is the structural and physiological organisation of the CNS
```
structural= comprised of the brain, cerebellum and spinal cord
physiological= brain and spinal cord
```
231
Describe what contributes to protection of the brain
```
Several layers of protection for the brain:
Bone (skull)
Membranes (3 meninges layers)
Watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid)
Blood-brain barrier
```
232
Name the cerebral lobes of the brain, and describe their main function (motor or sensory)
frontal - motor
parietal - sensory
temporal - sensory
occipital - sensory
233
Name the main areas located in each lobe, and their main function
Frontal:
Primary motor cortex- Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements
Pre-motor cortex- controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
Pre-frontal area- Higher order functions
Brocas area- is active as one prepares to speak
Parietal:
Somatosensory cortex- Receives sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
Capable of spatial discrimination- identification of body region being stimulated
Somatosensory association cortex
Temporal:
Primary auditory cortex- Interprets information from inner ear as pitch, loudness, and location
Auditory association area- Interprets information such as speech and music
Wernicke’s Area- Language comprehension
Occipital:
Primary visual cortex- Receives visual input from the retina via optic nerve
Visual association area- Uses past visual experiences to interpret stimuli
234
Name the 4 functional regions of the adult brain and detail what each of them comprise of
1. Cerebral hemispheres
2. Diencephalon
3. Brain stem
4. Cerebellum
235
Describe the functional anatomy of the spinal cord. Regions, columns, horns, roots, rami
helps carry electrical nerve signals throughout your body.
```
Regions= cervical, thoracic, Lumbar, sacral, coccygeal
columns= white matter is divided into 3 columns
horns= grey matter is divided into 3 horns
```
236
List examples of diseases that affect neurons of the spinal cord
```
Poliomyelitis
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
progressive bulbar palsy
primary lateral sclerosis
progressive muscular atrophy
```
237
main body systems and how their main functions aid in the body’s physiological response to exercise
Aerobic energy system - Used in prolonged sessions of exercise
800m, 1500m and above. > than 60 sec.
Lactic energy system (Anaerobic) - Energy lasts less than 2 min
400m run, 100m swim
```
ATP-CP energy system (anaerobic) - (Adenosine triphosphate- Creatine phosphate)
Short duration (10 seconds!!)
Great intensity (fast-twitch muscle fibres)
Sprint for 50m
```
