Exam

Question 1

What is confimation bias?

Answer 1

The tendency to search for or intepret information in a way that confirms ones preconceptions - ignoring contradictory evidence.

Question 2

What is selection bias?

Answer 2

Selecting only the data that you want - distortion of evidence or data that arises from the way that data is collected or the way that samples are selected.

Question 3

What is anchoring bias/the primary effect?

Answer 3

The common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information.

Question 4

What is attribution bias?

Answer 4

Systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and other’s behaviours.

Question 5

What is the availability heuristic?

Answer 5

Estimating what is more likely by what is more available in memory, which is biased towards vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples.

Question 6

What is Ego bias/the Ikea effect?

Answer 6

We value things we produce/decisions we make more highly than those we don’t make.

Question 7

What is the availability cascade?

Answer 7

A self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausability through repetition.

Question 8

What is the recency effect?

Answer 8

Weigh more recent events more importantly than past events.

Question 9

What is representativeness bias?

Answer 9

When something resembles something else, it is judged to be highly likely that they are the same thing.

Question 10

What is framing bias?

Answer 10

The framing effect is an example of cognitive bias, in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented.

Question 11

What are commonly stated reasons for the wrong diagnosis? [6]

Answer 11

1. It never crossed my mind
2. I paid too much attention to one finding.
3. I did not listen enough to the patient’s story.
4. I was in too much of a hurry.
5. I didn’t reassess the situaton when things didn’t fit.
6. I was overly influenced by a similar case.

Question 12

What are commonly stated reasons for the wrong treatment? [3]

Answer 12

1. It worked on the last patient I saw.
2. Most of my colleagues were keen on this new drug.
3. I was too concerned about potential side effects that I underestimated the potential benefits of the new drug.

Question 13

What are some common reasons for making the wrong decisions?

Answer 13

1. Haste
2. Made without consultation
3. Over-analysed
4. Based on past experience rather than the new situation
5. Based on other peopls decisions.

Question 14

What is analytical reasoning?

Answer 14

Gathering and weighing of elicited data against mental rules: probabilities that a particular diagnosis will present and the conditional probabilities associated with each piece of evidence with that diagnosis.

BAYES THEOREM

Question 15

What is non-analytical reasoning?

Answer 15

Pattern recognition, automatic, called intuitive, rapid, compares current patient to past cases, a new case is categorised by its resemblance to cases previously seen.

Question 16

What is an example of a decision making checklist that could be used to help avoid biases?

Answer 16

1. What are the key issues?
2. How much time do you have; what deadlines do you need to set?
3. Do you have all the facts/information you need?
4. Who are the stakeholders, i.e. who else will be affected by any decision you make?
5. Who else do you need to consult?
6. Are you committing yourself to a long-term decision or will a “stop-gap” solution suffice?
7. What are the implications of actions?

Question 17

What is the four stage approach to decision making?

Answer 17

Wingfield, 1997

1. Gather relevant facts
2. Prioritise and ascribe values
3. Generate options
4. Choose an option

Question 18

What is the six stage approach?

Answer 18

1. Gather all relevant information
2. Identify and clarify the ethical problem(s)
3. Analyse the problem by considering the various ethical theories and approaches
4. Explore the range of options or possible solutions
5. Make a decision
6. Implement and then refelct on the decision

Question 19

What are the main differences between the four stage approach of Wingfield 1997 and the six stage approach of O’Neill, 2005?

Answer 19

6 stage:
ethical problems analysed before generating options.

Also implement and then reflect on the decision.

Question 20

What are the four factors that influence decision making?

Answer 20

Evidence
Environment
Yourself
Patient/Scenario

Question 21

How can we minimise bias? 7

Answer 21

1. Devils Advocate/consider possible alternate options.
2. Ask questions that would disprove rather than support your hypothesis
3. Remember that we are stupider than we think.
4. Be aware of base rates
5. Question if a piece of information is salient because it reflects a recent or memorable experience (or because it is really salient?)
6. Be aware of biases
7. Use checklists.

Question 22

What are the reasons to use a decision making process? 7

Answer 22

1. Allows you to practice dealing with problems before they arise.
2. Method of structuring thinking so that it improves your ability to respond rationally when urgent problems arise.
3. Means of identifying the values involved in your decision making
4. Means of identifying areas of certaintity and uncertaintity
5. A basis for prospective risk management
6. A basis for retrospective analysis
7. An aid to reflective practice.