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Psych 201 > Exam 5 > Flashcards

Exam 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

A relatively permanent change in behavior and knowledge that occurs as a result of prior experience

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2
Q

Behaviorism

A

Explained solely in terms of directly observable events
Avoids organism’s unobservable mental state
Only interested in Stimulus-Response

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3
Q

Association Learning

A

People learn by making connections or bonds

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4
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Making an association between two stimuli (by pairing them) such that one stimulus comes to elicit a response that originally was elicited by the other stimulus

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5
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Russian Physiologist by training
Found dogs salivated or drooled when no food was present

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6
Q

Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus: NS

A

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a (the desired) response in an organism
Wished trigger

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7
Q

Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus: UCS

A

Not learned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the UCR) without prior learning (conditioning)
Natural trigger

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8
Q

Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Response: UCR

A

Unlearned (not learned) response
A reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning
Natural response to natural trigger

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9
Q

Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus: CS

A

A previously neutral stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR
Learned trigger

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10
Q

Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Response: CR

A

A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
Learned response to learned trigger

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11
Q

Additional Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Acquisition

A

The period during which a response is being learned
Measured in trials

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12
Q

CC: Acquisition: Trial

A

Every time the NS and UCS are presented together

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13
Q

CC: Acquisition: Temporal Pairings

A

The interval pairing of the NS-UCS also affects conditioning (the way in which you present the NS and UCS and how much time elapses between presentation)
Forward, Simultaneous, Backward

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14
Q

Forward Classical Conditioning/Forward Temporal Pairing

A

NS comes before the UCS
Best one (makes learning easier)
Short Delay
Trace

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15
Q

Short Delay - Forward Classical Conditioning

A

You present the NS, wait a fraction of a second or so, and then while the NS is still present, you present the UCS (delayed presentation of the UCS but the NS is still present when it is presented)

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16
Q

Trace - Forward Classical Conditioning

A

Your present the NS and then remove it, you wait a fraction of a second or so and then present the UCS (delayed presentation of the UCS while the NS is no longer present)

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17
Q

Simultaneous Conditioning/Simultaneous Temporal Pairing

A

Presenting the NS and the UCS at the same time

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18
Q

Backward Conditioning/Backward Temporal Pairing

A

Presenting the UCS before the NS
Not very effective

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19
Q

Classical Conditioning is the strongest when…

A

There are repeated pairings of NS and UCS
The inter-stimulus interval is short

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20
Q

Inter-Stimulus Interval

A

The time between NS and UCS

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21
Q

Extinction

A

A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear (the CR will go away)

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22
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials (have to acknowledge that the CR is no longer linked to the CS)

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23
Q

Stimulus Generalization

A

Any stimuli similar to the initial CS will elicit a CR
Ex. Salivation may be elicited by a bell or a piano tone

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24
Q

Stimulus Discrimination

A

A CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not in the present of others (other stimuli) (makes a distinction between the stimuli)
Ex. Salivation may not be elicited by a whistle

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25
Q

Higher-Order Conditioning

A

Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an establish CS (not an UCS)
First order: UCS and UCS, Second order: CS and CR
Produces a CR that is weaker and extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR

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26
Q

Classical Conditioning Applications

A

Ex. Acquiring fears
Ex. Overcoming fears/phobias

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27
Q

John Watson

A

Founder of Behaviorism
Little Albert

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28
Q

Watson: Little Albert

A

Conditioned to fear a white rat
Rat started as a neutral stimulus
Loud noise was the unconditioned stimulus
Fear of the white rat was the unconditioned response
Rat became conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus of the rat

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29
Q

Mary Cover Jones

A

Deconditioning (idea: you can’t be anxious and relaxed at the same time)
Peter: Pairing the white rat with ice cream

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30
Q

Therapies for Treating Fears/Phobias:

A

Exposure therapy
Systematic Desensitization

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31
Q

Exposure therapy

A

Extinction

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32
Q

Systematic Desensitization

A

Based on Mary Cover Jones’ deconditioning
Helping you relax in the presence of something that makes you anxious
Anxiety hierarchy

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33
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Making an association between response and consequence(s) (Behavior is controlled by its consequences)

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34
Q

Important Figures of Operant Conditioning:

A

E.L. Thorndike
B.F. Skinner

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35
Q

Important Figures of Classical Conditioning:

A

John Watson
Mary Cover Jones

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36
Q

E.L. Thorndike

A

Law of Effect:
A response followed by a satisfying consequence (reward/positive consequence) is strengthened and more likely to be repeated
A response followed by an annoying consequence (negative) is weakened and less likely to be repeated

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37
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Extended many of Thorndike’s ideas
Instruments: Skinner box, mazes
Distinguishes between two types of behavior: Respondent, and Operant

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38
Q

Skinner: Respondent Behavior

A

Stimulus elicits a response (stimulus, when present, will cause a response)
Focuses on the antecedents of behavior
Behavior seen in classical conditioning
What Pavlov calls an unconditioned response, Skinner calls a respondent behavior

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39
Q

Skinner: Operant Behavior

A

Stimulus emits a response
The stimulus signals you should respond (but the response is a decision that can be shaped or altered by consequence)
Focuses on the consequences of behavior
Behavior studied in operant conditioning

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40
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement

A

Increase in behavior

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41
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement

A

Increase in behavior by giving something pleasant (giving)

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42
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement

A

Increase in behavior by removing something unpleasant (removing)

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43
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcers

A

The stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response (stimulus given or removed)

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44
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Primary Reinforcer(s)

A

Stimuli that an organism naturally finds reinforcing (things that satisfy a biological need)
Ex. Food and water

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45
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Secondary Reinforcer(s)

A

Stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through their association with a primary reinforcer (or another conditioned reinforcer)
Conditioned/learned
Learned through classical conditioning
Ex. Money and praise (value developed over time - not innate)

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46
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcer

A

The pleasant stimulus that is given

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47
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcer

A

The aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided

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48
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Punishment

A

A response is weakened by an outcome that follows it (decrease in behavior)

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49
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Positive Punishment

A

Decrease in behavior by giving something unpleasant
Ex. Spanking

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50
Q

Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Negative Punishment

A

Decrease in behavior by removing something pleasant
Ex. Losing privileges

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51
Q

Basic Principles for Effective Punishment

A

Consistency
Immediacy
Sufficient
Instructions

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52
Q

Consistency

A

Should occur after every transgression

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53
Q

Immediacy

A

Should be swift

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54
Q

Sufficient

A

Should be enough to deter behavior

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55
Q

Instructions

A

Should tell why; verbalizations help but are not necessary

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56
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Acquisition

A

Time is takes to make the association between response and consequence (Wait for behavior to occur then reinforce it)

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57
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Extinction

A

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced

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58
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Spontaneous Recovery

A

An extinguished response returns without reinforcement (After a delay in presentation of stimulus)

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59
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Generalization

A

An operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus (or situation that is similar to the original one - stimulus generalization)

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60
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Discrimination

A

An operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another

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61
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Discriminative Stimulus

A

A signal that indicates that responding now/to the stimulus will bring you reinforcement (indicates condition for reinforcement)

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62
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Premack’s Principle

A

Reinforcing a less desired behavior with an opportunity to engage in a more desire one (“Grandma’s Rule”: after eating your veggies, you get dessert)

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63
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Escape Conditioning

A

Learning to end painful stimuli (painful stimulus is present)
Ex. The dog jumps over a barrier to escape from a painful electric shock

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64
Q

Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Avoidance Conditioning

A

Responding to a signal to avoid a painful stimulus (painful stimulus is never received)
Ex. The dog hears a signal (discriminative stimulus) which indicates a shockwave is coming (the dog jumps away before the shock is administered)

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65
Q

Operant Conditioning - Acquisition: Shaping

A

Involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response

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66
Q

Operant Conditioning - Acquisition: Schedule of Reinforcement

A

(Once a behavior is shaped, it must be maintained) Timetable for determining when a behavior should get reinforced

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67
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement: Continuous

A

Reinforce every correct response (everytime the behavior is engaged in, it is reinforced)

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68
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent

A

Reinforce only a fraction of correct responses (only a fraction of the time is the behavior reinforced)

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69
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Fixed Ratio

A

Reinforce set # of correct responses

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70
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Fixed Interval

A

Reinforce at set time intervals

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71
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Variable Ratio

A

Reinforce unpredictable, changing # of correct responses (average responses)

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72
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Variable Interval

A

Reinforce at unpredictable, changing time intervals (average time)

73
Q

Schedules and Behavior: Continuous Schedule Effect

A

Quickest learning
Quickest extinction
Quick/short term behavior change (can be easily forgotten)

74
Q

Schedules and Behavior: Partial Reinforcement Effect

A

Variable schedules make behaviors resistant to extinction
Superstitious behavior
Gambling

75
Q

Schedules and Behavior: Response Rate Effect

A

Stronger with variable schedules
Weaker response rate with fixed interval

76
Q

Cognitive Learning Theory Ideas

A

Between the stimulus and response is the organism’s cognitive representation of the world - O (stimulus, O, response)
Thought processes

77
Q

Stimulus-Response Psychology

A

Classical and Operant Conditioning
Proposes that learning involves the relatively automatic formation of bonds between a stimulus and a response

78
Q

Observational/Social Learning Theory (Social Learning Theory)

A

Albert Bandura
Learn by watching others
Children use adults and peers as models

79
Q

Modeling and Imitation

A

Biological bases for observational learning

80
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Fire when we see someone else do something

81
Q

Processes of Observational Learning

A

Attention
Retention (memory)
Reproduction
Motivation

82
Q

Attention

A

We must concentrate on the model’s behavior; modeling

83
Q

Retention (memory)

A

We must keep that information in memory so that it can be recalled when needed

84
Q

Reproduction

A

We must be physically capable, of reproducing the model’s behavior; imitation

85
Q

Motivation

A

We must be motivated to display the behavior
Direct Reinforcement or Punishment
Vicarious Reinforcement or Punishment

86
Q

Extinction Burst

A

Behavior increases rapidly before it decreases during operant extinction

87
Q

Memory

A

The power to recall that which has been learned

88
Q

3 Stages of Memory

A

Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

89
Q

Encoding

A

Must be coded so that it can be communicated to the brain
Putting information into memory system (5 basic senses)

90
Q

Storage

A

Maintaining information in the memory system over time
Capacity: How much information?
Duration: How long?

91
Q

Retrieval

A

Locating information stored in memory and bringing it to conscious awareness
Search and recall process

92
Q

2 Processes of Retrieval

A

Recall
Recognition

93
Q

Recall

A

Retrieve from memory without much help
Fill in the blank; essay questions

94
Q

Recognition

A

Retrieval aided by clues
Multiple choice and matching questions

95
Q

Information Processing Approach

A

The oldest and most comprehensive of the models of memory
Many aspects of other models are incorporated in this theory (levels; multiple memory systems)

96
Q

Cognitive Process

A

A strategy used to transfer information to the next memory system to be processed further

97
Q

Selective Attention

A

Focus on information
Concentrate on information for transfer to working memory (STM)

98
Q

2 Types of Rehearsal

A

Maintenance/Rote Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal

99
Q

Maintenance/Rote Rehearsal

A

Repeating information over as given
Memorization

100
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Give it meaning; repeat
Relate to something in the LTM
Processing

101
Q

3 Types of Memory

A

Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory

102
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Have a register for each sense
Register is like a file cabinet

103
Q

Short Term Memory

A

A storage place that holds information for a short period of time

104
Q

Working Memory

A

The part of memory system that allows us to mentally work with or manipulate information being held in STM

105
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Our vast library of more durable stored memories

106
Q

2 Types of Long Term Memory

A

Declarative Memory
Non-Declarative Memory

107
Q

Declarative Memory

A

Involves factual knowledge
Knowledge for facts, rules, and generalizations
Verbal

108
Q

2 Types of Declarative Memory

A

Semantic
Episodic

109
Q

Semantic

A

Generalized knowledge
Meaning
Dictionary type information

110
Q

Episodic

A

Memory for an event, as it happened
Personal events
Diary type information

111
Q

Non-Declarative Memory

A

Knowledge of acquired behaviors
Non-verbal
Motor skills and actions
How-to-do-something memory

112
Q

Sensory Memory: Encoding

A

Initial processing of information
Based on 5 basic senses
Icons - visual
Echoes - sound

113
Q

Sensory Memory: Storage

A

Capacity: Moderate quantity of information
Duration: Less than 1 to 2 seconds
Echoes linger longer than icons

114
Q

Sensory Memory: Retrieval

A

Once it is gone, it is gone
You don’t use it, you lose it (Decay/Fading Theory)

115
Q

Short Term Memory: Encoding

A

5 basic senses
Acoustic coding - sound
Visual coding - appearance
Acoustic coding dominates whereas visual coding seems to fade more quickly

116
Q

Short Term Memory: Storage

A

Capacity: Limited
Average adult can hold 7+/-2 items
5-9 items

Duration:
15-20 seconds without rehearsal
Transfer to LTM

117
Q

Short Term Memory: Retrieval

A

Decay theory

118
Q

To Increase Storage Capacity in Short Term Memory

A

Chunking
Automaticity

119
Q

Chunking

A

Larger, meaningful groupings of information
Can help increase the amount held in short-term memory

120
Q

Automaticity

A

Knowing information so well it becomes automatic
ABCs, multiplication tables

121
Q

Long Term Memory: Encoding

A

Encoding information into the long-term memory
Levels of processing/coding information (Surface/Deep)

122
Q

Long Term Memory - Encoding: Surface Coding

A

Coding based on the 5 basic senses
Structural: Looks like
Phonological: Sounds like

123
Q

Long Term Memory - Encoding: Deep Coding/Semantic Coding

A

Coding based on meaning (processing)

124
Q

Long Term Memory: Storage

A

Capacity: Virtually unlimited
Duration: Virtually unlimited

125
Q

Long Term Memory: Retrieval

A

Connection between storage and retrieval
Recall from memory

126
Q

Decay/Fading Theory

A

Use it or lose it
Especially likely in sensory registers and short-term memory

127
Q

Motivated Forgetting

A

Forget because it is too painful to remember
Repression (Freudian)
Psychogenic Amnesia

128
Q

Retroactive Inhibition/Interference

A

Replacement of old information with new information - blocks recall of old information (trying to recall old information)

129
Q

Proactive Inhibition/Interference

A

Lack of encoding of new information because of old information - old information blocks the processing of new information (trying to recall new information)

130
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Loss of memory of events after brain damage

131
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Loss of memory of events before brain damage

132
Q

Retrieval Theory

A

Failure to recall because of encoding failure
Didn’t put enough information into your system - retrieval cue failure

133
Q

Short Term vs. Long Term Research

A

Research on memory using the serial order effects
Supports a distinction between STM and LTM
Most likely to forget the middle of the list

134
Q

Methods to Improve Memory

A

Mnemonic strategies
Acronyms
Rhyming

135
Q

Mnemonic Strategies

A

Methods for organizing information in order to remember it
Usually use some type of imagery

136
Q

Method of Loci

A

Associate images of information with places you know (location)

137
Q

Context-Dependent Memory

A

Memories are helped or hindered by similarities and differences in the environmental context (external environment) (taking a victim back to the crime scene)

138
Q

State-Dependent Memory

A

How we were feeling when information was learned (two should match) (internal state)

139
Q

Distributed Practice

A

Break information down into smaller (many, mini) study sessions

140
Q

Massed Practice

A

Learning in a single long (or a few) study period(s)

141
Q

Thought

A

When you think about anything, you are manipulating one of the basic ingredients of thought - concepts

142
Q

Concepts

A

Categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties (category used for grouping)
Allow us to make comparison to a category we already know

143
Q

Three Elements of a Concept

A

Concepts share a set of defining attributes (distinctive features)
Suggests we have prototypes/best representatives
They can be identified by their exemplars

144
Q

Prototypes

A

An image that captures the essence (most or all of the features) of the concept

145
Q

Exemplars

A

Our actual memories of the concept (episodic memory)

146
Q

Language

A

Consists of a system of symbols that society has agreed on their meaning and the rules for combining those symbols

147
Q

Two Basic Elements of Language

A

Symbols: Such as words
Rules: For combining those symbols (syntax)

148
Q

Four Components of Language

A

Phoneme, Morpheme, Syntax, Pragmatics

149
Q

Phoneme

A

Smallest unit of sound affecting speech
English uses about 40 phonemes
Ex. t, b, ph, th

150
Q

Morpheme

A

Smallest unit of language that has meaning
Prefixes, suffixes, and root words
Ex. ly, pre, shoe

151
Q

Syntax

A

Grammatical rules
Used to combine words into phrases and sentences

152
Q

Pragmatics

A

Social conventions of language (use of language in social settings)
Ex. Turn-taking, eye contact, whispering, etc.

153
Q

1st Year Language Development

A

Crying (0-2 months)
Cooing (2-5 months)
Babbling (6 months)
Around 10-12 months start to understand several words (speak first recognizable word)
Earliest words tend to be nouns (mama, daddy, car, cookie) for American babies
Around 12 months: holophrases, overextensions

154
Q

Cooing

A

long vowel sounds (2-5 months)

155
Q

Babbling

A

consonant and vowel combinations (6 months)

156
Q

Holophrases

A

Single word to communicate an entire sentence of meaning (holophrastic period)

157
Q

Overextensions

A

Use the meaning of a word in more places than it applies

158
Q

2nd Year Language Development

A

18-36 months
Vocabulary expands dramatically (learn several new words a day)
By age 2, they know 50-100 words
Start combining words together
Telegraphic speech

159
Q

Telegraphic Speech

A

First, short, basic sentences - 2 or 3 words

160
Q

3rd Year Language Development

A

Learning some basic rules of grammar (syntax)
Past tense, plurals being used correctly
By 5 years old, children have a basic understanding of the structure of their native language
Over-regularization

161
Q

Over-regularization

A

Using rules in places where they don’t apply

162
Q

Characteristics of Intelligence

A

The capacity to acquire knowledge
Abstract thinking and reasoning abilities
Problem-solving abilities that are adaptive for survival

163
Q

Cattell’s Theory

A

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

164
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

Innate, inherited reasoning abilities
Not influenced by experience, education, or environment
Mostly non-verbal
Ex. Capacity of working memory (+-7 items), speed of information processing, ability to control attention

165
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

Acquired abilities (learned)
Heavily influenced by experience, education, and environment
Mostly verbal
The ability to apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems
Ex. Vocabulary tests, information tests, mathematics

166
Q

Binet and Simon

A

Developed a set of age-graded intellectual tasks
Developed a 30-item test
Test was given to students who were candidates for the special classes
Test measured child’s mental age
Compared test scores (Mental Age) to Chronological Age
MA should equal CA
Used a difference score to see if students were candidates for special classes (MA-CA = -2 years or more)

167
Q

Terman

A

Challenged the psychometrics of the Binet test
Looked at intelligence in terms of a ratio of mental age to chronological age
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): MA/CA x 100
Average IQ = 100

168
Q

Modern Calculation of IQ

A

Today’s IQ tests no longer use mental age
They use a person’s standing in a normative group of individual of the same age
Use the normal curve distribution
Standard score where the mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1
Today average IQ is 100 and standard deviation is 15 (Wechsler)

169
Q

Characteristics of a Normal Curve

A

+/- 1 standard deviation = 68%
+/- 2 standard deviations = 95%
+/- 3 standard deviations = 99%

170
Q

Individual IQ Tests

A

one examiner to one examinee

171
Q

Group IQ Tests

A

Many examinees; paper and pencil

172
Q

Stanford-Binet Test

A

One single test, score based on comparison to others, age dependent

173
Q

Wechsler’s Tests

A

WPPSI, WISC, WAIS

174
Q

WPPSI

A

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (3-7)

175
Q

WISC

A

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (6-17)
Most widely used test for children age 6+ (not the Stanford-Binet)

176
Q

WAIS

A

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (16-late adulthood)

Psych 201 (2 decks)

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