Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Cornea
A
- Transparent protective covering
- Bends the light wave
2
Q
Aqueous Humor
A
- A watery substance in the back of the cornea
- Keeps cornea rounded and glassy
- Nourishes the eye
3
Q
Pupil
A
- An adjustable opening in the center of the iris
- Constricts and dilates
4
Q
Iris
A
- Translucent, donut-shaped muscle
- Controls the size of the pupil
5
Q
Lens
A
- Focuses the visual image on the retina
- One concave; one convex
6
Q
Ciliary Muscles
A
- Change the shape of the lens to bend light rays
- Ocular accommodation
7
Q
Vitreous Humor
A
- Jelly-like substance
- Most of the eye
- Gives shape to the eye
8
Q
Retina
A
- A multilayered light-sensitive tissue
- Transduction occurs here
9
Q
Three Layers of the Retina
A
- Photoreceptor cells
- Bipolar cells
- Ganglion neurons
10
Q
- Photoreceptors
A
- Perform transduction
1. Rods
2. Cones
11
Q
Rods
A
- Highly sensitive to light
- Function best in dim light
- Primarily black and white
- Not sensitive to color
- Periphery of the eye
12
Q
Cones
A
- Less sensitive to light
- Better in bright light
- Distinguish colors
- Concentrated in the fovea (center)
13
Q
- Bipolar Neurons
A
- Pass signals from photoreceptor cells to ganglion cells
14
Q
- Ganglion Cells
A
- On the surface of the retina
- Generate action potentials
- Make up the optic nerve
15
Q
Fovea
A
- A small area/indentation in the center of the retina
- Densely packed cones
- Contains no rods
16
Q
Blindspot
A
- Point at which the optic nerve exits the eye
- No receptor cells
17
Q
Optic Nerve
A
- Takes messages to the brain
- Afferent neurons
18
Q
Sensory Adaptation
A
- Constant exposure to unchanging stimulation causes a decrease in the sense organ’s response
19
Q
Light Adaptation
A
- Increasing ability to see in the light as time in the light increases
20
Q
Dark Adaptation
A
- Increasing ability to see in the dark as time in the dark increases
21
Q
Three Theories of Color Vision
A
- Trichromatic Theory
- Opponent-Process Theory
- Dual-Process Theory
22
Q
Trichromatic Theory of Color
A
- Cones are most sensitive to wavelengths corresponding to blue, green, and red
- Short wavelength cones (blue)
- Medium wavelength cones (green)
- Long wavelength cones (yellow/red)
- Cannot explain afterimage
23
Q
Opponent-Process Theory of Color
A
- Explains afterimages
- Color-sensitive visual elements are grouped into opposing pairs that inhibit each other
- Red-green
- Blue-yellow
- Black-white
24
Q
Dual Process Theory of Color
A
- Combines the two theories to account for color perception
- Trichromatic: cones are sensitive to different wavelengths
Opponent: opponent processes begin in ganglion cells (not in the cones) - Cones and ganglion cells
25
Trichromat
- People with normal color vision
26
Dichromat
- People who are color-blind in one of the three systems
- More present in males than females
- Red-green is the most common form of colorblindness
27
Monochromat
- People who are completely colorblind
- Sensitive only to the black-white system
- Extremely rare
28
Physical Stimulus for Hearing: Sound
- The repetitive fluctuation in the pressure of a medium such as air or water
- Molecules of air or fluid collide and then move apart
29
Amplitude of Sound
- Height from baseline to peak
- Loudness
- Higher amplitude = higher sound
30
Wavelength of Sound
- Distance from peak to peak
- Timbre
31
Frequency of Sound
- Number of wavelengths per second
- Pitch = how high or low the sound is
32
Timbre
- Quality of sound
- Complex wave patterns are added to lowest frequency of a sound
33
Outer Ear
- Pinna
- Auditory (Ear) Canal
34
Middle Ear
- Tympanic membrane
- Ossicles
- Oval Window
35
Inner Ear
- Semi-circular canals
- Vestibular sacs
- Cochlea
36
Pinna
- Collects and shapes sound
37
Auditory Canal
- Funnels sound towards ear drum
38
Tympanic Membrane
- Eardrum
- Vibrates
39
Ossicles
- Malleus (hammer)
- Incus (anvil)
- Stapes (stirrup)
- Amplify sound
40
Oval Window
- Attached to the stapes
- Sound vibrations pass through
41
Semi-Circular Canals:
- Vestibular sacs
- Fluid-filled organs for equilibrium
42
Cochlea
- Snail-like structure
- Houses the Organ of Corti
- Hair cells: receptor cells for the ear
- Transduction occurs here
43
Auditory Localization
- Timing of sound arriving at each ear
- Sound intensity difference at each ear
44
Deafness
- Damage or deterioration of the delicate structures of the middle and inner ear can cause deafness
- Conduction or nerve deafness
45
Conduction Deafness
- Damage in the middle ear - improper vibration
- Bones of the middle ear fuse together (replace or break apart)
- Damage to the eardrum
- Hearing aids
46
Nerve Deafness
- Damage to the inner ear
- Damage to the hair cells
- Damage to the acoustic nerve
- Occurs gradually with age
- Cochlear implants
47
Olfactory Perception
- Sense of smell
- Nose, mouth, throat
- Airborne chemicals
- Olfactory bulb (not the thalamus)
48
Gustatory Perception
- Taste
- Mouth - taste buds
- Chemicals in solutions
49
Principles of Organization
- Figure-Ground
- Grouping
50
Figure-Ground
- We organize stimuli into a figure against a background
- Salient figure vs. background
51
Grouping
- Putting things together
- Forming groups
1. Similarity
2. Proximity
3. Closure
4. Continuity
52
Grouping by Similarity
- Similar elements
- Common features
- Look alike
53
Grouping by Proximity
- Closer objects are perceived as belonging together
54
Grouping by Closure
- Filling in missing contours to form a complete object
55
Grouping by Continuity
- Creating a continuous form/pattern
56
Perceptual Set
- Readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way
- Expectations, culture, or experience can influence your perceptions
- Can impact a person's perception of an object
57
Functional Fixedness
- The intended function of an object actually hinders your ability to see its other potential uses
58
Perceptual Constancies
- Perceiving something as staying the same despite change
- Stable perception even though sensory input is continually changing
59
Size Constancy
- Changes in size of a retinal image is interpreted as changes in distance
60
Shape Constancy
- The perceived shape of an object remains the same, even when seen at different angles
61
Brightness/Color Constancy
- Brightness or color of an object remains the same under different conditions of illumination
62
Depth Perception
- Distance between objects
- How near or far away objects are
1. Binocular cues
2. Monocular cues
63
Binocular Depth Cues
- Require the use of both eyes
1. Eye convergence
2. Binocular Disparity
64
Eye Convergence
- Produced by feedback from the muscles in your eyes
- Your eyes rotate inward to view a close object or project it onto the retina
65
Binocular Disparity
- Each eye sees a slightly different image
- Slightly different viewing angle in each eye
66
Monocular Depth Cues
- Cues about distance that require only one eye
1. Pictorial Depth Cues
2. Non-Pictorial Depth Cues
67
Pictorial Depth Cues
- Cues about distance that can be given in a flat picture
1. Linear Perspective
2. Interposition
3. Elevation
4. Texture Gradient
5. Relative Size
68
Linear Perspective
- The perception that parallel lines converge in the distance
69
Interposition
- Objects closer to us may cut off part of our view of more distant objects
70
Elevation
- Closer objects appear lower on the horizontal plane than farther objects
71
Texture Gradient
- Closer objects have greater detail
72
Relative Size
- If two objects are of similar size, the one that looks smaller will be judged to be farther away
73
Non-Pictorial Cues
- Motion parallax
- Occular accommodation
74
Motion Parallax
- If we are moving, nearby objects appear to move faster than objects that are farther away ones
75
Ocular Accommodation
- Ciliary muscles push the lens together
- Rounder = closer
- Flatter = farther
76
Depth Perception in Infants
Visual cliff
77
Perception of Movement
Sometimes the size and shape are not important
Is an object moving, how fast is it going, and where is it heading?
78
Real Motion
The physical displacement of an object from one point to another (is the object actually moving?)
Figure-Ground: Stimulus crosses different backgrounds (as you pay attention to the figure, the background changes)
79
Apparent Motion
Apparent motion
Perception of motion when there is none
Illusions
Stroboscopic Motion (Illusion)
Autokinetic Effect (Illusion)
80
Illusions
Compelling but incorrect perceptions
A visual stimulus that "fools" the eye
Stimulus contains misleading cues that do not correspond to reality
81
Ponzo Illusion
Linear perspective gives the illusion that two things are different sizes when they are the same size
82
Ames Room Illusion
Constructed rooms that make one person look really tall and one person really small
83
Muller-Lyer Illusion
How we bend the line can affect how long we perceive the line to be
84
Touch
- Skin
- Physical pressure
- Transduction occurs in the receptors just below the skin
85
Encoding of Intensity of Touch
- Firing rate of individual neurons
- Number of neurons stimulated
86
Consciousness
One’s moment to moment awareness of self and environment (outside world)
87
Conscious
Things you are aware of
88
Preconscious
Storehouse of all memory (things you can access and easily bring to the conscious)
89
Unconscious
Unaware of these things but they have an influence on your behavior (painful, repressed, undesirable, anxiety-provoking thoughts) (cannot be easily brought to the conscious level)
90
Non-Conscious
Some events can’t be experienced consciously; totally removed from conscious awareness (mental processes that control our biological functions occur at this level)
91
Altered States
Distinctively noticeable or significant differences in psychological and behavioral functioning
92
Sleep
One of the most common altered states of consciousness
It was thought of as a time of mental inactivity but researchers have discovered it's actually an active, complex state
93
EEG
Researchers used an EEG to monitor brain wave activities and discovered that distinctive and systematic changes in amplitude and frequency occur in the brainwaves of sleeping people
94
Non-REM Stage 1
Light sleep, easily awakened, 1-7 minutes, brain wave pattern becomes more irregular
95
Non-REM Stage 2
Deeper level of sleep, transitional phase, sleep spindles - brief bursts of brainwave activity of 1-2 seconds
96
Non-REM Stage 3
Deep sleep, delta waves, difficult to wake from this stage, groggy and confused
97
REM
Rapid Eye Movements, high arousal, frequent dreaming
Brainwave activity comparable to daytime levels
98
Paradoxical Sleep
The body is highly aroused, yet there is very little movement
99
REM Sleep Paralysis
Inability to move muscles during REM sleep
100
REM-Rebound Effect
Increase the amount of REM sleep after being deprived of sleep (REM sleep)
101
Cycle of sleep
1, 2, 3, 2, REM
4-5 cycles
102
Sleep Deprivation
Can lead to fatigue, irritability, and inattention
103
Insomnia
Persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
Usually for a month or more
Associated with depression and anxiety
104
Narcolepsy
Abrupt shift from an active, often emotional waking state into REM sleep
Often while laughing or experiencing some other emotional state
May experience cataplexy (collapse and immobile)
105
Sleep Apnea
Sudden stops in breathing; snoring
Hundreds of times every night
No recall of brief awakenings to resume breathing
Causes: genetic predisposition, obesity
106
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Sleeping infants stop breathing and die
Most common cause of unexpected infant death between ages of one month and one year
Associated with low birth weight, smoking, brain stem development, and genetic factors
107
Nightmares
Distressing or frightening REM sleep dreams
More toward the morning when time to get up
Occurs in about 4% of the general population
Higher % in those suffering from PTSD
108
Sleep Terror
Horrific images during N3 deep sleep
Blood curdling scream
Intensely frightened for 10-30 minutes
Not recall the episode in the morning
Especially common in children - boys
109
Sleepwalking
Occurs during non-REM sleep (stage 3: deep sleep)
Usually in childhood
Most sleepwalkers forget activities
Most children simply outgrow
Waking is not harmful
110
REM Behavior Disorder
Normal REM paralysis does not occur
Sleepers actually move; act out dreams
Can be dangerous to the dreamer or people nearby
111
Circadian Rhythms
Cycle of behavior and physiological changes that repeat about every twenty-four hours
Changes in body temperature, certain hormonal secretions and other bodily functions
112
Pineal Gland
Secretes melatonin:
A hormone that has a relaxing effect on the body
113
Dreams
Dreams can last from a few seconds to many minutes
They can be organized or chaotic, realistic or fantasy, peaceful or exciting
Some dreams occur during nREM sleep
Bizarre and vivid ones happen during REM
Some people engage in lucid dreaming
Aware that a dream is a dream when occurring
114
Freud's Theory on Dreaming
Dreams are a disguised form of wish fulfillment
115
Manifest Content
what you see in the dream; storyline or plot
116
Latent Content
the hidden meaning; symbolism
117
Psychoactive Drugs
Drugs whose effect on the brain alter consciousness and other psychological processes
118
Psychopharmacology
The study of psychoactive drugs
119
Agonist Drugs
Bind to receptors to mimic neurotransmitters’ effects
120
Antagonist Drugs
Bind to receptors to block neurotransmitters’ effects
121
Depressants
Reduce CNS activity
122
Alcohol
Reduces activity in the Cerebral Cortex
Makes some report feeling uninhibited and free
Impairs Hippocampus
Center for forming new memories
Suppresses the Cerebellum
Causes poor motor coordination; lack of balance
Depresses the hindbrain (medulla) mechanisms
May cause fatal problems with breathing and heartbeat regulation
123
Stimulants
Increases or speeds up CNS activity
Increase behavioral and mental activity
Ex: Amphetamines, Cocaine, Caffeine
124
Amphetamines
Increase alertness and arousal, suppresses your appetite, and can cause or bring on insomnia
125
Opiates
Relieve pain
Drowsy effect; induce sleep
Highly addictive class of drugs
Ex: Morphine, Heroin, Codeine
126
Hallucinogens
Psychedelic drugs
Create a loss of contact with reality
Cause feelings of distorted body image
Cause dream-like fantasies and hallucinations
Ex: LSD, Marijuana, Ketamine
