Exam 4 Study Guide Flashcards
What is mental imagery?
ability to mentally recreate the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli
What is visual imagery?
ability to form images in the “mind’s eye”
What questionnaire can quantify visual imagery ability?
Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionare
Describe the two subtypes of imagery (spatial and object)
spatial - ability to imagine relative locations of things in relation to one another
object - ability to imagine visual details, features, or objects
What is aphantasia?
total inability to voluntarily create images in “mind’s eye”
How common is aphantasia?
very rare, only about 0.8%
Is visual imagery an ability or a spectrum?
differences in visual imagery fall on a spectrum, almost everyone has to varying degrees
Describe how visual imagery correlates with memory for concrete and abstract words.
individuals with higher VVIQ score have better LTM for abstract words than low VVIQ individuals
no difference in LTM for abstract words
What is dual coding theory? How does it help explain the correlations between visual imagery and memory for concrete/abstract words?
theory that info is represented through sensory information and verbal information.
explains correlation with memory and abstract v, concrete words because concrete words represent sensory and verbal info, while abstract words are represented only through verbal, making concrete words align more with how we code things into LTM
What do Shepard & Metzler’s mental rotation studies suggest regarding imagery v. perception?
because the total degrees rotated correlates with how long it takes to identify, we conclude that individuals rotate them in their mind, indicating that imagery and perception share mechanisms
Kosslyn, Image scanning: How did the distance between two objects on the map influence the time it took to mentally “travel” between the two objects? What does this suggest about imagery v. perception?
They found that the further apart two objects were, the more time it took to mentally travel between them. This suggests that visual imagery works similarly to perception.
Mental Walk task: How did distance differ based on the size of the animal visualized? What does this suggest about imagery v. perception?
Participants imagines moving closer to small animals than large animals. Suggest visual imagery works similarly to perceptions
Confusing perception & imagery, Perky 1910
Participants visualized objects while faint projections were put on a screen. They were not aware of the objected being projected on the screen, but their descriptions matched the projection.
If participants have difficulty distinguishing between perceiving and mental visual images, what does this suggest about imagery v. perception?
What are imagery neurons? How are they involved in perception and imagery?
neurons that fire in the same way whether they perceive or imagine an object
What does topographic map refer to in the context of visual imagery and the neural activity they generate?
correspondence between the layout of a visual stimulus and the activity it generates such that specific locations on visual stimulus cause activity at specific locations next to each other on the cortex. both imagery and perception result in topographically organized brain activation
How does the size of an object influence the location of neural activity in the visual cortex?
small objects tend to activate in the back of the visual cortex, with large object activity stretching forward
For objects visualized mentally, how does the size of an object influence the location of neural activity in the visual cortex?
like with perception, small objects activate the back of the visual cortex and large objects cause activity to stretch forward.
What is a reasonable conclusion regarding the overlap in cognitive/neural mechanisms used for visual perception v. visual imagery?
imagery and perception share many similarities and overlap in the neural mechanisms they rely upon, but it is not a complete overlap
What are some differences between animal communication and human language?
animal communication rely on a limited set of communication units that correspond to a fixed meaning, while human language can be combined in infinite different ways to create meaning
Define arbitrariness of language
words and symbols used to refer to objects are not inherently related to objects they symbolize
Define productivity of language
capacity for elements of communication system to be combined in new ways to create new meanings
Define displacement of language
ability to speak about things and events other than those occurring here and now (past, future, other locations)
Define discreteness and duality of language
discreteness - language is comprised of acoustically distinct units (phonemes)
duality - language is organized at 2 levels
- individual distinct sounds
- combinations of sound that convey meaning (morphemes)
Define cultural transmission of language
language is culturally transmitted, not inherited via genes.
Define phonemes
units of sound (vowels and consonants)
Define morphemes
basic units of meaning (words and meaningful parts such as suffixes and prefixes)
Define syntax
grammatical rules that govern how words are put together into meaningful strings (phrases/sentences)
Define extralinguistic information
information that isn’t part of the content of language but is critical to interpreting its meaning (context, nonverbal cues)
What purpose does infant babbling serve?
is done to develop control of vocal tracts
What does it mean to overextend and underextend word meanings?
overextend example: calling all dogs Kaizy
underextend example: thinking that grandma only refers to YOUR female grandparents
Differences in bilingualism and learning a second language early v. late
If learned early, same brain areas are used for both languages
If learned later, different brain areas are used for each language
What is the lexicon?
semantic meaning of all the words we know
What is the word frequency effect?
we are able to access the meaning of high frequency words faster than low frequency words
Why is it easier to understand words in context?
because word pronunciation varies among people and varies based on mood, tone, and words before and after. thus understanding individual words is much more difficult than understanding a whole sentence in recordings
What is speech segmentation?
although there are no pauses between words in a sentece, we can perceive individual words
What are content and function words? Which do we pay more attention to when reading?
content words - actively convey meaning
function words - play structural role
pay more attention to content words
Levels of text presentation (describe each):
surface form - exact wording
textbase - meaning of individual sentences
situation model - integration of meaning across the entire passage, draws upon prior knowledges (gist of passage, use inferences)
ex. John is hitting a nail so he is likely using a hammer
What are speech errors? Why are they of interest in understanding speech production?
speech error - an utterance that deviates from its intended form
we are interested in them because they inform us of how intended speech production is formed. shows it requires complex motor coordination and existence of speech planning that takes place before speech is produced
suggests that phonemes and morphemes are planning units for speech
aspects of speech are addressed in separate stages
What is an anticipation speech error?
when a later segment takes the place of an earlier segment
leading list = reading list
What is a perseveration speech error?
when an earlier segment takes the place of a later segment
nick of nime = nick of time
What is a blend speech errors?
when 2 words are blended or fused into a single word
likely the result of choosing between 2 words when planning a sentence
lection/lesson = lection
What is speech planning?
the process of turning a thought into a sequence of words meant to express the thought
What does Broca’s aphasia impair?
causes difficulty producing fluent speech (and writing) as a result of brain damage
- can form thoughts normally but have difficulty expressing them.
- impairs speech planning and motor articulation
Define problem solving
requires finding ways to get around obstacles to reach our goal state
What is the general focus of the Gestalt approach to problem solving?
how a problem is represented in the mind and how solving a problem involves reorganizing or restructuring this representation
What does restructuring refer to?
process of changing a problems representation in the mind in order to make it easier to solve
What is insight?
a sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves restructuring to yield an interpretation that was not immediately obvious.
What is the difference between insight v. non-insight problems
Insight problems are solved via a sudden realization
Non-insight problems are solved via linear step by step process
Define fixation
tendency to focus on specific characteristics of the problem that prevents one from arriving at the solution
What is functional fixedness?
a tendency to fixate on familiar functions and uses of an object, which leads to ignoring alternative uses that could be more conducive to solving a problem
What is a mental set? (water jug problem)
preconceived notion of how to approach a problem based on what has worked in the past
ex: doing the known B - A - C instead of A + C because you are focused on previous problem’s solutions
Define initial state
conditions at the beginning of a problem
Define goal state
solution to the problem
Define intermediate state
conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem
Define operators
actions that take the problem from one state to another, usually governed by rules
Define problem space
all possible states that could occur when solving a problem
Define means-end analysis
a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
Define subgoals
small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal state
What is analogical transfer?
transferring experience in one problem to solve another, similar problem
What is a target problem and a source problem?
target - problem you are trying to solve
source - problem that is similar to the target problem, and illustrates a potential solution
What is Duncker’s radiation problem?
A problem that illustrates analogical problem solving. Participants goal is to save the patient by shooting low intensity radiation from multiple sides to kill tumor. This solution is very difficult to come up with. However, success triples when participants are given the fort analogy.
What are some difference between expert and novice problem solving?
experts have more knowledge and organize information differently. they also spend more time analyzing problems before attempting to solve
Does expertise in one area confer any advantages to problem solving in other areas?
no, only an advantage in their field. even have difficulty imagining new systems of inquiry
