Exam 3 Study Guide Flashcards
Define encoding
process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM
Define retrieval
process of bringing info to consciousness by transferring it from LTM to WM
Define consolidation
the process of changing memories from a fragile state to a permanent state
What is levels of processing theory?
theorizes that encoding and retrieval of information depends on the depth of processing that info receives
Contrast shallow and deep processing.
shallow - processing of info involves little attention to meaning and focuses on superficial aspects like physical features
deep - processing of info that involves close attention to meaning and connections to other things
What is the self-reference effect?
memory for information is better if you relate it to yourself
What is the generation effect?
generating information yourself enhances learning and retention rather than receiving it yourself
What is the testing effect?
practicing retrieval results in better memory for that information
What is the tip of the tongue phenomenon?
experience of knowing something but unable to access it from memory
What is a retrieval cue?
stimulus that help remember other info
ex: location, smell, sound
What is the difference between a free recall and cued recall procedure? What typically results in better recall?
free recall asks participants to remember as many words as possible without help
cued recall asks participants to remember as many words but were given a retrieval cue
-results in better recall
What is encoding specificity?
can retrieve info better when we’re in similar conditions as when it is encoded
What is context dependent learning?
retrieval is better when physical surroundings match the external context during encoding
What is state-dependent learning?
retrieval is better when internal state is similar to that when it was encoded
What is transfer-appropriate processing?
retrieval better when cognitive processes for encoding match cognitive processes for retrieval
What is synaptic consolidation?
happens over a short timescale, occurs at the level of synapses between individual neurons
What is systems consolidation?
happens over a long timescale, basically involves transferring information from the hippocampus to the cortex
Why is sleep important for consolidation?
sleeping eliminates environmental stimuli that may disrupt consolidation
What is reconsolidation?
when memory is retrieved it is fragile and must be consolidated again
-can be modified or eliminated
What is the reminiscence bump?
typically have the most amount of autobiographical memories from 15-30 years old
3 Hypotheses meant to explain the reminiscence bump
self image hypothesis - enhanced memory for events that formed self identity
cognitive hypothesis - encoding better for rapid change, followed by stability
cultural life script hypothesis - personal events easier to recall when they fit cultural lifescript
What is the area of the brain most closely associated w/ emotional aspects of memory?
amygdala
Why is memory considered constructive?
What is source monitoring?
problem of determining the origins of memories, knowledge, and beliefs
What is a source monitoring error? (source misattribution)
misunderstanding of where source of a memory is from
What do the results of Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” experiment suggest about how recall changes over time?
recall accuracy declined overtime, recall was shaped by cultural knowledge. native american aspects were changed for details from 1930s english culture.
-memory comes from multiple sources
What is nostalgia?
memory involving sentimental longing for the past
May serve as a self-regulation mechanism
Why are memories elicited by stimuli like music and taste called involuntary memories?
brings back memories that you do not intentionally recall, they are cued by sensory stimulation
What is conceptual knowledge?
knowledge that allows us to recognize things/events and make inferences about their properties
What are concepts and categories?
concepts - mental representations of individual or class of items
category - includes all possible examples of a concept
Describe the prototype approach to categorization.
membership into category is determined by comparing it to a “typical” member of a category
high prototypicality means a category member closely resembles category prototype
What is the typicality effect?
ability to verify highly prototypical objects quickly
What is the exemplar approach to categorization? How does it differ from the prototype approach?
membership determined by whether an object is similar to actual members of categories that they have seen in the past
prototype approach compares to avg. member, not necessarily real
Which approach to categorization better describes how we categorize things?
depends on learning stage:
initial learning - prototype
gain more knowledge of a category - exemplar
depends of category stage:
small categories - exemplar
large categories - prototypes
Semantic Network Model
(what is cognitive economy and inheritance)
model represents categorization as nodes (concepts) connected by links (relationships among concepts)
maintains cognitive economy by having shared properties stored at higher nodes
inheritance - properties at higher levels apply to all connected low level items
What is spreading activation?
when node is activated, activity spreads out along related links and primes other nodes
What is the traditional model of cognition?
cognition is separate from perceptual and motor systems
What is embodied cognition?
cognition is largely grounded in perceptual and motor systems
Define reasoning
process by which we come to a conclusion
Define conclusion
judgement reached via reasoning process
Define decision
involves choosing among alternatives
What is deductive reasoning?
starting at general principles to reach specific conclusions
What is inductive reasoning?
start from a specific observation to reach general conclusion
What is confirmation bias?
seek out and give more value to info that conforms to personal beliefs while ignoring info that goes against it
What is myside bias?
type of confirmation bias where people evaluate evidence in a way that bias their existing opinions and attitudes
What is the availability heuristic?
involves estimating likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which they come to mind
What is the representativeness heuristic?
involves judging likelihood of individual instances being part of a larger category based on its similarity to characteristics we normally associate with that category
- shy librarian v. truck driver
What is the conjunction fallacy?
probability of 2 event occurring together cannot be higher than probability of each alone
What is a syllogism?
consist of 2 premises followed by a conclusion
What is a categorical syllogisms?
premises that start with all, no, or some
What is a conditional syllogisms?
start with a premise of the form If… then and then a statement
What is a valid conclusion?
where conclusion logically flows from the premises
What is a true conclusion?
syllogism’s conclusion is true
What is the Wason card problem?
E K 4 7, people have difficulty solving abstract problem because of confirmation bias and fail to perform the falsification principle, but can solve easily when related to real life situation
Define risk aversion. Describe asymmetry between losses v. gains.
tendency to avoid taking risks, tend to avoid risks in our favor because we anticipate feeling more worse for a loss than positive for a win
How do our expected emotions in response to gains/losses compare to our actual emotions?
Expected negative was very large and expected positive was very small, in reality both are same size +-
What is the status quo bias?
tendency to do nothing and stick with the default option when faced with a decision
What is the framing effect? Understand example Tversky & Kahneman
decisions influenced by how choices are stated
Option A - save 200
Option B - 1/3 probability save everyone
70%+ chose option A
Option C - 400 people die
Option D - 1/3 probability no one will die
70%+ chose option D
when proposed as gains we chose risk aversion, when proposed as losses we have risk taking strategy
What is the ultimatum game?
Game where a proposer has $10 and they decide how to split it between 2 people, receiver can choose whether to accept or reject and nobody gets money. goes against utility theory because people start to reject offers of $3 or less. people are more likely to accept unfair offer from computer
What are the characteristics of System 1? What is it useful for?
automatic, fast, intuitive system. useful for making decisions quickly and navigating daily life
What are the characteristics of System 2? What is it useful for?
slower, deliberative, thoughtful system. good for problem solving
What’s the value of having 2 different systems of reasoning?
Reduces cognitive load by using automatic processing most of the time, and allows us to focus cognitive energy on problem solving when we need slower thinking
