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Biochemistry 1 > EXAM 4 review questions > Flashcards

EXAM 4 review questions Flashcards

1
Q

list monosaccharides (1 sugar)

A
  1. Glucose
  2. Fructose
  3. Galactose
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2
Q

list disaccharides (2 sugars)

A
  1. Sucrose
  2. Lactose
  3. Maltose
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3
Q

describe homopolysaccharides

A

Polysaccharides (>10 sugars) with 1 type of sugar

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4
Q

describe heteropolysaccharides

A

Polysaccharides (>10 sugars) with >1 type of sugars

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5
Q

compare homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides

A

one type of sugar vs. more than one type of sugar

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6
Q

define reducing sugar

A

if the OH on the anomeric carbon is not bound to another sugar

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7
Q

compare amylose and amylopectin

A

amylose - makes up 20% of starch and has only linear alpha (1-4) bonds

amylopectin - makes up 80% of starch and has linear alpha (1-4) bonds and branched alpha (1-6) bonds every 24-30 glucoses

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8
Q

compare starch and glycogen

A 
starch: storage form of carbs in plants
branched alpha (1-6) every 24-30 glucose

glycogen: storage form of carbs in animals (found in cytoplasm of muscle and liver cells)
branched alpha (1-6) every 8-12 glucose
therefore, glycogen is more branched than starch

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9
Q

list soluble fibers

A 
pectin
gums
beta-glucans
konjac glucomannan
inulin
fructans
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10
Q

list insoluble fibers

A

cellulose

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11
Q

sources of both soluble and insoluble fibers

A

homoglycans and heteroglycans

fruits and vegetables!

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12
Q

what are the health benefits of soluble and insoluble fibers?

A

soluble: delays gastric emptying (increase satiety - feel full longer)
insoluble: decreases GI transit time (speeds motility)

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13
Q

list grains that are included in whole grains

A

buckwheat, bulgur, corn, millet, brown rice, rye, oats, sorghum, wheat and wild rice

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14
Q

to be considered a whole grain, the grain must contain what?

A

endosperm (starch)
germ (oil)
bran (insoluble fiber)
in same relative proportions!

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15
Q

describe benefits/concerns of each portion of whole grain

A

Benefits:
vitamins and minerals - vit E, selenium and zinc
lignan - plant estrogen
antioxidants - decrease oxidation
insoluble fiber - speeds up GI transit
soluble fiber - increases satiety, binds chol, TG, glucose
resistant starch - acts like soluble fiber
plant sterols - decrease cholesterol absorption

Concerns:
phylate - can bind minerals

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16
Q

why is phylate considered an antinutrient?

A

can bind minerals

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17
Q

is high fructose corn syrup worse than sucrose?

A

no?

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18
Q

list enzymes in carb digestion and location

A

mouth: salivary alpha-amylase
stomach: none
pancreas: pancreatic alpha-amylase
small intestine: brush border enzymes (lactase, maltase, sucrase, isomaltase)

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19
Q

what impact does insulin have on glucose absorption?

A

pulls GLUT2 out of brushborder membrane to decrease glucose absorption

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20
Q

what is the normal range of fasting blood glucose?

A

70-99mg/dL

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21
Q

how do insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose?

A

insulin: helps reduce blood glucose levels
glucagon: helps increase blood glucose levels

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22
Q

what holds insulin together?

A

disulfide bridges

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23
Q

what is insulin secreted in response to?

A

high plasma glucose conc.
plasma amino acid levels (**arginine)
CCK
gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP)

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24
Q

does insulin stimulate or inhibit glycogen synthesis?

A

stimulates

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25
Q

does insulin stimulate or inhibit glucose uptake by muscle or liver cells?

A

stimulates

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26
Q

does insulin stimulate or inhibit TG synthesis?

A

stimulates

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27
Q

does insulin stimulate or inhibit TG breakdown?

A

inhibits

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28
Q

does insulin stimulate or inhibit protein synthesis?

A

stimulates

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29
Q

does insulin stimulate or inhibit AA uptake by cells?

A

stimulates

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30
Q

how does insulin get glucose from the plasma into muscle cells or adipocytes?

A

by stimulating production of GLUT4

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31
Q

what is glucagon secreted in response to?

A

low plasma glucose conc.
low plasma aa levels
epinephrine or norepinephrine

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32
Q

does glucagon inhibit or stimulate liver glycogen degradation?

A

stimulates

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33
Q

does glucagon inhibit or stimulate TG synthesis?

A

inhibits

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34
Q

does glucagon inhibit or stimulate TG breakdown?

A

stimulates

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35
Q

dpes glucagon inhibit or stimulate glucogenesis?

A

stimulates

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36
Q

does glucagon inhibit or stimulate glucocorticoid synthesis?

A

stimulates

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37
Q

what are the differences between a high GI and low GI food?

A

high - pure sugars - increase risk of colon, breast and prostate cancers, heart diease and type 2 diabetes

low - fruits and veggies and chocolates

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38
Q

according to toxicology data, do we consume toxic quantities of artificial sweetners?

A

NO - methanol is toxic at 0.0791mg/kg (avg person - 0.061mg/kg)

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39
Q

how many calories do we get from sugar substitues?

A

0Cal/g

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40
Q

how many calories do we get from sugar replacers?

A

1.5-2Cal/g

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41
Q

how many calories do we get from soluble fibers?

A

2Cal/g

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42
Q

how are sugar alcohols formed?

A

reduction (adding H)

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43
Q

what are GAGs?

A

glycosaminoglycans - repeating disaccharides of acidic sugar and amino sugar

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44
Q

what are the 6 GAG classes?

A

1) chondroitin sulfate
2) hyaluronic acid
3) keratin sulfate
4) dermatan sulfate
5) heparin
6) heparin sulfate

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45
Q

where are GAGs found?

A

mucus and synovial fluid

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46
Q

what are proteoglycans?

A

protein core with all other GAGs bound to it (except hyaluronic acid)

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47
Q

where are proteoglycans found

A

aggrecan in cartilage

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48
Q

what are Glycoproteins?

A

protein + branched oligosaccharide

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49
Q

what do Glycoproteins do?

A

cell surface recognition
ABO blood group antigens
biological lubricants as part of mucins in GI and urogenital tracts

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50
Q

which carbs taste sweet?

A

simple carbs

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51
Q

which carbs do not taste sweet?

A

complex carbs

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52
Q

what are the simple carbs?

A

mono and disaccharides

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53
Q

what are the complex carbs?

A

oligo and polysaccharides

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54
Q

what is mutorotation?

A

flip back and forth between alpha and beta

if mutorotates = reducing sugar

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55
Q

what reaction are disaccharides formed from?

A

dehydration/condensation

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56
Q

what type of bond/linkage is formed between disaccharides?

A

glycosidic linkage

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57
Q

what happens with soluble fiber?

A

swells in water, not digested, FERMENTED in LI to short chain FA and gas

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58
Q

what happens with insoluble fiber?

A

does not swell in water, not digested or fermented, EXCRETED UNCHANGED

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59
Q

is pectin a soluble or insoluble fiber?

A

soluble

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60
Q

is pectin a homo/heteroglycan?

A

heteroglycan

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61
Q

where is pectin found?

A

inside fruits and veggies

active ingredient in Luden’s cough drops

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62
Q

are gums soluble or insoluble fibers?

A

soluble

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63
Q

are gums homo/heteroglycan?

A

heteroglycan

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64
Q

where are gums found?

A

oatmeal, legumes and barley

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65
Q

are beta-glucans soluble or insoluble?

A

soluble

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66
Q

are beta-glucans homo/heteroglycans?

A

homoglycans

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67
Q

what are beta-glucans important for?

A

decreasing cholesterol, TG and glucose absorption

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68
Q

is konjac glucomannan soluble/insoluble?

A

soluble

69
Q

is konjac glucomannan homo/heteroglycan?

A

heteroglycan

70
Q

are fructans soluble/insoluble?

A

soluble

71
Q

are fructans homo/heteroglycan?

A

homoglycan

72
Q

where are fructans found?

A

chicory root, bananas, tomatoes

73
Q

function of fructans?

A

prebiotic bacteria - stimulates growth of good bacteria in gut

74
Q

is cellulose soluble/insoluble?

A

insoluble

75
Q

is cellulose homo/heterglycan?

A

homoglycan

76
Q

where is cellulose found?

A

fruit and veggie peels, bran, legumes, root veggies, nuts

77
Q

what is cellulose important for?

A

directing water flow

78
Q

what is an excellent source of soluble fiber?

A

oatmeal

79
Q

what 2 sugars form maltose? (include bonds)

A

glucose-alpha(1-4)-glucose

80
Q

what 2 sugars form sucrose?

A

glucose-(alpha1-beta2)-fructose

81
Q

what structure is repeated in cellulose?

A

glucose-beta(1-4)-glucose

82
Q

what 2 sugars form lactose?

A

galactose-beta(1-4)-glucose

83
Q

insulin is synthesized by which cells of the pancreas?

A

beta cells

84
Q

what are the usages of glucose in cell with increasing glucose concentration?

A

1) use glucose for ATP
2) store glucose as glycogen in liver and muscles
3) turn glucose into TG in the liver

85
Q

glucagon is synthesized by which cells of the pancreas?

A

alpha cells

86
Q

how much energy do carbohydrates provide?

A

4Cal/g

87
Q

how many carbs are required by the brain?

A

130g/day

88
Q

how many Cals (energy) should come from carbs?

A

45-65%

89
Q

true or false: carbs are usually found in cyclic structures

A

true

90
Q

what enzyme is used to form glycosidic linkages?

A

glycosyltransferases

91
Q

what happens in the large intestine?

A

no digestion
soluble fiber fermented to short chain FA and gas
insoluble fiber excreted unchanged in feces

92
Q

age of onset for type 1 diabetes?

A

<30 years old and develops rapidly

93
Q

age of onset for type 2 diabetes?

A

> 35 years old, develops gradually

94
Q

nutritional status of type 1 diabetes?

A

undernourished

95
Q

nutritional status of type 2 diabetes?

A

obese

96
Q

prevalence of type 1 diabetes?

A

10%

97
Q

prevalence of type 2 diabetes?

A

90%

98
Q

genetic correlation of type 1 diabetes?

A

moderate

99
Q

genetic correlation of type 2 diabetes?

A

very strong

100
Q

defects of type 1 diabetes?

A

autoimmune disease destroying beta-cells

101
Q

defects of type 2 diabetes?

A

insulin resistance, beta cells cant keep up

102
Q

plasma insulin in type 1 diabetes?

A

low to absent

103
Q

plasma insulin in type 2 diabetes?

A

high early in disease

104
Q

type 1 diabetes respond to oral hypoglycemic drugs?

A

nope

105
Q

type 2 diabetes respond to oral hypoglycemic drugs?

A

yes

106
Q

treatment for type 1 diabetes?

A

insulin

107
Q

treatment for type 2 diabetes?

A

diet, exercise, oral meds

108
Q

what is a glucosamine?

A

glycosaminoglycan (GAG)

109
Q

which is the most abundant GAG in vivo?

A

chondroitin sulfate

110
Q

where is chondroitin sulfate found?

A

cartilage, tendons, ligaments and aorta

111
Q

function of chondroitin sulfate?

A

binds collagen in cartilage for tensile strength

112
Q

which class of GAGs forms proteoglycan aggregates with hyaluronic acid?

A

chondroitin sulfate

113
Q

glucosamine is a precursor for which GAG class?

A

hyaluronic acid

114
Q

function of hyaluronic acid?

A

lubricant and shock absorber

115
Q

where is hyaluronic acid found?

A

synovial fluid of joints, umbilical cord, cartilage, loose connective tissue

116
Q

which GAG class is found in loose connective tissue proteoglycans with chondroitin sulfate?

A

keratin sulfate

117
Q

which GAG class is found in skin, blood vessels and heart valves?

A

dermatan sulfate

118
Q

which GAG class in found in the intracellular component of mast cells in liver, lungs and skin?

A

heparin

119
Q

what is the function of heparin?

A

anticoagulant

120
Q

which GAG class is the extracellular GAG?

A

heparin sulfate

121
Q

how do diabetics watch their sugar intake?

A

sugar substitutes - no Calories

sugar replacers - minimal Calories

122
Q

list sugar substitutes?

A 
saccharin
aspartame
acesulfame-K
sucralose
neotame
stevia
123
Q

is saccharin heat stable?

A

yes

124
Q

what is the acceptable daily intake of saccharin?

A

5mg

125
Q

is aspartame (Nutrasweet) heat stable?

A

no

126
Q

what is the acceptable daily intake of aspartame?

A

50mg

127
Q

is acesulfame-K (Sunett) heat stable?

A

no

128
Q

what is the acceptable daily intake of acesulfame-K?

A

15mg

129
Q

is sucralose (Splenda) heat stable?

A

yes

130
Q

what is the acceptable daily intake of sucralose?

A

5mg

131
Q

is neotame heat stable?

A

yes

132
Q

what is the acceptable daily intake of neotame?

A

18mg

133
Q

is stevia stable?

A

yes

134
Q

what is the acceptable daily intake for stevia?

A

4mg

135
Q

what is the function of liver glycogen?

A

regulates blood glucose
if high - stores as glycogen
if low - digest glycogen and releases to blood

136
Q

what is the function of muscle glycogen?

A

used for energy during short term exercise

137
Q

more branches means __________ non reducing ends

A

more

138
Q

more non reducing ends means?

A

digested faster

139
Q

describe carb digestion in the mouth

A

salivary alpha-amylase randomly digests alpha(1-4) bonds

140
Q

describe carb digestion in the stomach

A

salivary amylase denatured, no digestion

141
Q

describe carb digestion in the pancreas

A

pancreatic alpha-amylas randomly digests only alpha(1-4) bonds

142
Q

describe carb digestion in the small intenstine

A

brush border enzymes (lactase, maltase, sucrase, isomaltase) digests alpha(1-4) and alpha(1-6) bonds

143
Q

what are the products of mouth digestion?

A

dextrins (short oligosaccharides)

144
Q

what are the products of pancreas digestion?

A

glucose, maltose, isomaltose (mono+disaccharides)

145
Q

what are the products of digestion in the small intestine?

A

glucose, galactose and fructose (monosaccharides)

146
Q

what mechanism is used for glucose and galactose absorption between meals?

A

active transport

147
Q

what 4 things are required for active transport of glucose and galactose between meals?

A

sodium-glucose transporter-1 (SGLT-1)
ATP
Na
K

148
Q

how are monosaccharides transported out of the basolateral membrane between meals?

A

GLUT2 transport protein

149
Q

what mechanism is used for glucose and galactose absorption after a sugar-rich meal?

A

active transport and facilitated diffusion

150
Q

what is the role of GLUT2 in glucose and galactose absorption after a sugar-rich meal?

A

embedded in brush border membrane to absorb glucose via facilitated diffusion
also to transport monosaccharides out of basolateral membrane

151
Q

what is the role of insulin in glucose and galactose absorption after a sugar-rich meal?

A

pulls out GLUT2 from brush border membrane (stays within enterocyte) to decrease glucose absorption

152
Q

what mechanism is used for fructose absorption?

A

facilitated diffusion

153
Q

what transport protein is used to absorb fructose into enterocyte?

A

GLUT5

154
Q

what transport protein transports fructose out of the basolateral membrane?

A

GLUT2

155
Q

what are the hormones (transport proteins) used in carb absorption and transport?

A

GLUT2
GLUT4
GLUT5

156
Q

which transport protein transports glucose, galactose and fructose out of basolateral membrane?

A

GLUT2

157
Q

which transport protein is membrane-bound?

A

GLUT4

GLUT5

158
Q

which transport protein is insulin-stimulated and required to transport glucose from plasma to muscle and adipose tissue?

A

GLUT4

159
Q

which transport protein is required for fructose absorption?

A

GLUT5

160
Q

what is the condition called for persistent high blood glucose?

A

hyperglycemia

161
Q

what blood glucose level is classified as prediabetic?

A

100-125mg/dL (fasting)

162
Q

what blood glucose level is classified as diabetic?

A

> 126mg/dL (fasting)

163
Q

what are the symptoms of hyperglycemia?

A

frequent urination
dehydration
thirst

164
Q

what is the anomeric carbon?

A

carbon with double bond O

165
Q

what is the anomeric carbon on an aldose?

A

carbon 1

166
Q

what is the anomeric carbon on a ketose?

A

carbon 2

167
Q

are alpha or beta bonds harder to digest?

A

beta bonds

168
Q

starch is a polymer of what monosaccharide?

A

glucose

Biochemistry 1 (4 decks)

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