Exam 4 - Reproduction System Flashcards
Functions of reproduction system
1) Gametogenesis: The reproductive system is responsible for producing gametes in the gonads
2) Fertilization: It facilitates the meeting of sperm and egg.
3) Development and Nourishment of a New Individual: The female reproductive system supports the development of the fetus during pregnancy and provides nourishment after birth through breastfeeding.
4) Production of Reproductive Hormones: The system produces hormones that regulate reproductive function and influence the development of sex-specific physical traits and reproductive behaviors.
Functions of reproduction system: Male vs. Female
1) Gametogenesis: The reproductive system is responsible for producing gametes (sperm in males and eggs in females) in the gonads—testes in males and ovaries in females.
2) Fertilization: It facilitates the meeting of sperm and egg. In males, the duct system helps mature and transport sperm. In females, the reproductive tract receives the sperm and enables its movement toward the egg for fertilization.
3) Development and Nourishment of a New Individual: The female reproductive system supports the development of the fetus during pregnancy and provides nourishment after birth through breastfeeding.
4) Production of Reproductive Hormones: The system produces hormones that regulate reproductive function and influence the development of sex-specific physical traits and reproductive behaviors.
Scrotum and role in regulating temperature in testes
The scrotum is a saclike structure that houses the testes and is divided into two compartments by a connective tissue septum. Externally, a midline ridge called the raphe marks the division. The wall of the scrotum consists of skin, connective tissue, and two types of muscles: the dartos muscle (smooth muscle) and the cremaster muscle (skeletal muscle from the abdominal wall).
These muscles regulate testicular temperature, which is vital for healthy sperm development. In cold temperatures, the dartos muscle contracts, causing the scrotal skin to wrinkle and tighten, while the cremaster muscle pulls the testes closer to the body—both actions help conserve heat. In warm conditions, both muscles relax, allowing the scrotum to become loose and the testes to hang further from the body, facilitating cooling. This temperature regulation mechanism ensures that sperm cells, which are highly temperature-sensitive, develop under optimal conditions.
Structure of testes
The testes are small, oval-shaped organs (4–5 cm long) located within the scrotum. They serve as both exocrine glands (producing sperm) and endocrine glands (secreting testosterone). Each testis is enclosed by a thick, white connective tissue capsule known as the tunica albuginea, which extends inward to form septa. These septa divide the testis into 300–400 lobules, each containing tightly coiled seminiferous tubules, where sperm production takes place.
Surrounding the seminiferous tubules is loose connective tissue containing interstitial (Leydig) cells, which secrete testosterone. The seminiferous tubules lead into straight tubules called the tubuli recti, which drain into a network called the rete testis. From there, sperm travels through 15–20 efferent ductules, which pass through the tunica albuginea to exit the testis. These ductules are lined with ciliated epithelium to help transport sperm efficiently.
Specialized cells of testes: Spermatogenic cells
The testes contain specialized spermatogenic (germ) cells within the seminiferous tubules that are responsible for the continuous production of sperm. These cells undergo several stages of development, beginning as spermatogonia at the base of the tubule. Through a series of mitotic and meiotic divisions, they develop into spermatocytes, then spermatids, and finally mature into spermatozoa. This entire process, known as spermatogenesis, allows the testes to produce millions of sperm daily, crucial for male fertility.
Specialized cells of testes: Sertoli cells
Among the developing sperm cells are Sertoli cells, also called sustentacular cells, which play a vital supportive role. These cells nourish and protect the developing sperm by forming the blood-testis barrier, which prevents immune cells from attacking the genetically distinct sperm. Sertoli cells also secrete inhibin, which helps regulate sperm production through feedback to the pituitary gland, and androgen-binding protein, which maintains high testosterone levels in the seminiferous tubules necessary for sperm development.
Specialized cells of testes: Sertoli cells: Leydig cells
Surrounding the seminiferous tubules in the connective tissue are the interstitial cells, or Leydig cells, which are responsible for producing the hormone testosterone. Testosterone is essential not only for stimulating and maintaining spermatogenesis but also for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle mass, body hair, and a deeper voice. Together, spermatogenic cells, Sertoli cells, and Leydig cells ensure the proper function of the testes in both sperm production and hormone regulation.
Process of spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process by which sperm cells are produced and matured in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. During the final phase, called spermiogenesis, each developing spermatid undergoes a transformation to become a mature sperm cell. This involves forming three main parts: the head, which contains the nucleus and the acrosome (an enzyme-filled vesicle that helps the sperm penetrate the egg); the midpiece, which is packed with mitochondria to supply energy; and the tail or flagellum, which enables motility through its microtubule-based movement.
As spermiogenesis concludes, the developing sperm align themselves with their heads positioned toward the sustentacular (Sertoli) cells and their tails facing the lumen of the seminiferous tubules. This orientation ensures that once mature, sperm can be efficiently released into the lumen. From there, they continue their journey through the male reproductive tract. The entire process ensures the production of motile and functional sperm capable of fertilizing an egg.
Ducts of male reproductive system and their functions
After sperm cells are released into the seminiferous tubules, they travel through a series of ducts. First, they move through the tubuli recti into the rete testis. From there, they pass through the efferent ductules, which transport them out of the testis and into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored.
Once mature, the sperm travel through the ductus deferens, then into the ejaculatory duct, and finally through the urethra, which carries them to the exterior of the body during ejaculation
Ducts of male reproductive system and their functions: Epididymis
The epididymis is a coiled tube attached to the back of each testis that plays a crucial role in sperm maturation and storage. It receives immature sperm from the testis and gradually transports them through its long duct, where they undergo structural and functional changes. Over 12–16 days, sperm lose excess cytoplasm, mature their acrosome, and gain the ability to swim and fertilize an egg. The stereocilia lining the duct absorb fluid and aid in concentrating the sperm. By the time sperm reach the tail of the epididymis, they are fully mature and ready for ejaculation.
Ducts of male reproductive system and their functions: Ductus deferens
The ductus deferens (also known as the vas deferens) is a muscular tube that transports sperm from the tail of the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. It ascends along the posterior side of the testis, joins with blood vessels and nerves to form the spermatic cord, and passes through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity. The ductus deferens travels over the ureter and loops behind the bladder toward the prostate gland. Near the prostate, it widens to form an ampulla, where sperm is temporarily stored. Its inner lining contains pseudostratified columnar epithelium surrounded by smooth muscle, and peristaltic contractions help propel sperm forward during ejaculation.
Ducts of male reproductive system and their functions: Ejaculatory duct
The ejaculatory duct is formed where the ampulla of the ductus deferens merges with the duct from the seminal vesicle. Each ejaculatory duct is about 2.5 cm long and travels through the prostate gland to join the urethra. During ejaculation, sperm from the ductus deferens mixes with seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles in the ejaculatory duct. This pathway ensures the sperm is delivered into the urethra, where it can then be expelled from the body.
Ducts of male reproductive system and their functions: Urethra
The male urethra is a 20 cm long tube that serves as a dual-purpose passageway for both urine and reproductive fluids. It extends from the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis and is divided into three regions: the prostatic urethra, which passes through the prostate and receives secretions from the prostate gland and ejaculatory ducts; the membranous urethra, the shortest section that runs through the perineum; and the spongy (penile) urethra, which is the longest portion extending through the penis to the external urethral orifice. The urethra is lined with different types of epithelium depending on the region and also contains mucus-secreting urethral glands that help lubricate the passage. Its primary role is to transport urine and semen out of the body, making it essential for both excretory and reproductive functions in males.
Structure and function of penis
The penis is the male organ of copulation, responsible for transferring sperm to the female reproductive system. Structurally, it contains three columns of erectile tissue: two corpora cavernosa on the dorsum and sides, and one corpus spongiosum on the ventral side. The corpus spongiosum surrounds the spongy urethra and expands at the tip to form the glans penis, and at the base to form the bulb of the penis. During erection, blood fills the spaces in the erectile tissue, causing the penis to enlarge and become firm. The root of the penis is anchored to the pelvic bones by structures called the crura, while the external urethral orifice at the glans allows for the exit of semen and urine.
The skin of the penis is loosely attached, with a specialized fold called the prepuce or foreskin covering the glans in uncircumcised males. This skin is rich in sensory receptors. In some cultures, the prepuce is removed through circumcision, which may reduce the risk of infection and penile cancer. The penis also contains numerous nerves, arteries, and veins, mainly located along its dorsal surface. Dorsal arteries and nerves provide blood supply and sensation, while deep arteries run within the erectile tissues. Altogether, the penis’s structure supports its functions in reproduction and urination, while also being highly sensitive to touch.
Structure and function of three major glands in male reproductive system: Seminal vesicles
The seminal vesicles are sac-shaped glands located near the ampullae of the ductus deferens. Each gland is approximately 5 cm long and tapers into a short duct that merges with the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. Structurally, the seminal vesicles are enclosed in a capsule made of fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscle cells, which aids in the expulsion of their contents during ejaculation.
The seminal vesicles produce thick, mucous-like secretions that serve multiple essential functions in reproduction. These secretions contain fructose, citric acid, and other nutrients that nourish sperm cells, providing the energy needed for their movement and survival. They also include fibrinogen, a protein that contributes to the coagulation of semen shortly after ejaculation, helping it to stay within the female reproductive tract. Additionally, prostaglandins in the seminal fluid stimulate uterine contractions, which aid in moving sperm toward the site of fertilization. Overall, the seminal vesicles play a vital role in enhancing sperm viability and facilitating successful fertilization.
Structure and function of three major glands in male reproductive system: Prostate gland
The prostate gland is a walnut-shaped organ approximately 4 cm long and 2 cm wide, located at the base of the urinary bladder and surrounding the prostatic urethra and ejaculatory ducts. Structurally, it is made up of both glandular and muscular tissue, enclosed in a fibrous connective tissue capsule. Inside, numerous fibrous partitions contain smooth muscle and are lined with columnar epithelial cells that form saccular dilations. These cells secrete prostatic fluid, which is delivered into the prostatic urethra through 15 to 30 small ducts.
The prostate gland produces a thin, milky, alkaline secretion that plays several important roles in reproduction. This secretion, along with fluids from the seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, and urethral mucous glands, helps neutralize the acidic environment of the urethra and the vagina, creating a more favorable condition for sperm survival. The prostate also contributes to the coagulation of semen immediately after ejaculation by supplying enzymes that convert fibrinogen (from the seminal vesicles) into fibrin, making semen sticky. This sticky consistency helps semen stay in place temporarily within the female reproductive tract. Later, the enzyme fibrinolysin, also from the prostate, dissolves this coagulated mass, freeing the sperm cells to move toward the egg for fertilization.
Structure and function of three major glands in male reproductive system: Bulbourethral glands
The bulbourethral glands, also known as Cowper glands, are a pair of small, pea-sized glands located near the membranous urethra at the base of the penis. Each gland is a compound mucous gland, meaning it produces a thick, slippery secretion. These glands are more prominent in younger males but become smaller and harder to detect with age. Their small ducts merge to form a single duct that empties into the spongy urethra.
The bulbourethral glands, along with the urethral mucous glands, produce an alkaline mucous secretion just before ejaculation. This secretion plays a crucial supportive role in reproduction by performing four main functions: it lubricates the urethra to ease sperm movement, neutralizes the acidity of the spongy urethra to protect sperm, provides additional lubrication during intercourse, and reduces vaginal acidity, creating a more favorable environment for sperm survival. These functions help ensure the successful transport and viability of sperm within the male and female reproductive tracts.
Hormones that influence male reproductive system and their functions: GnRH
The gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is produced by the hypothalamus and acts on the anterior pituitary to stimulate the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These two pituitary hormones are critical for the functioning of the testes. Chronically elevated GnRH levels in the blood cause anterior pituitary cells to become insensitive to stimulation by GnRH molecules, and little LH or FSH is secreted. Long-term administration of synthetic GnRH can reduce sperm cell production, causing infertility
Hormones that influence male reproductive system and their functions: FSH
Follicle-stimulating hormone, also released from the anterior pituitary, acts on the seminiferous tubules, specifically targeting sustentacular (Sertoli) cells, to support spermatogenesis, the process of sperm production. This action ensures that sperm cells are produced and mature properly within the testes.
Hormones that influence male reproductive system and their functions: Testosterone
Testosterone, produced by the interstitial cells, plays a broader role. It supports spermatogenesis and is also responsible for the development and maintenance of male reproductive organs. Additionally, testosterone influences the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle mass, deeper voice, and facial hair. It also provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to regulate the secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH, maintaining hormonal balance within the male reproductive system.
Hormones that influence male reproductive system and their functions: LH
Luteinizing Hormone targets the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) in the testes, stimulating them to produce and secrete testosterone, the primary male sex hormone.
Changes that occur in males during puberty
During male puberty, which typically begins between ages 12 and 14, significant hormonal and reproductive changes occur that enable sexual maturity. Before birth, the placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to stimulate testosterone production in fetal testes. After birth, this stimulation ceases, and testosterone levels remain low until puberty. At puberty, the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to the inhibitory effects of androgens, leading to an increase in gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. This rise in GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release more luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH promotes the formation of sperm cells, while LH stimulates interstitial cells in the testes to produce larger amounts of testosterone, which is essential for the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Although testosterone begins to exert negative feedback on GnRH, it cannot completely suppress its secretion, allowing puberty to progress and the male reproductive system to fully mature.
Events that occur during the male sex act: Erection
Erection is the first phase of the male sex act and is triggered by parasympathetic nerve impulses originating in the spinal cord. These impulses travel through the pudendal nerve to the arteries of the penis, causing the release of acetylcholine and nitric oxide (NO). These substances relax smooth muscle cells and dilate the blood vessels, allowing blood to fill the sinusoids of the erectile tissues. As a result, venous outflow is restricted, and blood pressure within the penis rises, causing it to become enlarged and rigid. This vascular engorgement allows for penetration during intercourse.
Events that occur during the male sex act: Secretion of Mucus
At the same time that erection occurs, parasympathetic action potentials stimulate the mucous glands of the penile urethra and the bulbourethral glands at the base of the penis. These glands secrete alkaline mucus into the urethra. This mucus serves multiple purposes: it lubricates the urethra, helps neutralize acidic urine residue, and prepares the urethral passage for the safe movement of sperm.