Lab 4 Flashcards
Blood functions
Control chemical composition by regulating pH and electrolytes; supplies cells with oxygen, nutrients, and other molecules, protect the body from foreign organisms, and has the ability to change from a liquid to a gel-like substance to stop bleeding
Blood components
55% plasma and 45% formed elements
Plasma
A solution comprised of 90% water and salts, vitamins, proteins, and cellular waste dissolved in plasma
Transports a small amount of dissolved carbon dioxide and some bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate is transported from cells to the lungs where it is converted to carbon dioxide, diffuses into lungs, and is exhaled
Antibodies
Immunoglobins
Special proteins responsible for cellular defense
Formed elements
Comprised of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes
Erythrocytes
The most abundant blood cell
Red in color and lack a nucleus
Produced at a rate of 2 million cells per second within the red marrow of the bones and the proximal epiphyses
As erythrocytes mature, they lose their nuclei and mitochondria
Biconcaved discs allow more surface area for rapid gas exchange between blood and other tissues in the body
Major function is to transport blood gases
Each erythrocyte contains millions of hemoglobin molecules
Short life span (100-120 days)
Destroyed in liver and spleen
Hemoglobin
A complex protein molecule and has a structure that contains four iron atoms
Reversibly binds to oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules
Potentially, each red blood cell can transport more than a billion oxygen molecules
Leukocytes
Produced in bone marrow, have nuclei (2+ lobed), and lack hemoglobin
Pass between endothelial cells of capillaries by process called diapedesis and enter interstitial spaces
Many are phagocytes that engulf foreign bodies and other unwanted substances in body and destroy them
Part of immune system
Either granular or agranular
Granules
Vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes, antimicrobial proteins, or immune mediators such as histamine
Granulocytes
Contain abundant granules in cytoplasm
Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Different types of granulocytes contain different enzymes or mediators, and trigger different immune responses
Agranulocytes
Contain few granules in cytoplasm
Include monocytes and lymphocytes
Thrombrocytes
Small cellular pieces produced from the breakdown of megakaryocytes and lack a nucleus
Survive short period of time and are involved in blood clotting
Hemophilia
Condition caused by genetic mutation for a lower level of clotting factors, which results in prolonged bleeding at sites of injury
Clotting factors
Helps to stop bleeding by coagulating blood at site of an injury
Normally when injury occurs and blood begins to leak from the vessels, platelets adhere to the site of the damage to plug the leak as the first step of the repair process
Vitamin K is necessary for synthesizing four of the clotting factors
Several clotting factors are associated with the activation of thrombin
Thrombin
Activated by clotting factors
Thrombin catalyzes the transformation of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin
Fibrin glues platelets together and forms a web-like mesh that traps blood cells to form a clot
Neutrophil
Granulocyte
Light, lavender colored cytoplasmic granules
Multilobed nucleus can be easily seen
Release hormones called cytokines that attract other phagocytes to the site of injury
Commonly treats bacterial infections
Eosinophils
Granulocyte
Orange-red cytoplasmic granules; bluish-colored, bi-lobed nucleus
Fight multicellular parasitic infections, such as worms
Commonly treats parasitic infections and allergic reactions
Basophils
Granulocytes
Very rare; dark blue cytoplasmic granules; nucleus not always visible; bi-lobed
Migrate to injured tissue and release histamine (vasodilator) and heparin (anticoagulant)
Commonly treats tissue injuries and allergic reactions
Lymphocyte
Agranulocyte
Large blue-purple nucleus and surrounded by a pale blue cytoplasm
Main cells that populate lymph nodes, glands, and other lymphatic tissue
Responsible for specific immune response to infection
Mature into T cells and B cells
Commonly treats bacterial or viral infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer
Monocytes
Agranulocyte
Twice the size of erythrocytes; blue-purple nucleus has an indentation (horseshoe appearance)
When monocytes migrate out of the bloodstream, they become large, phagocytic cells called macrophages, which have little function in circulating blood
Commonly treats bacterial or viral infections
Chronic granulocytic/lymphocytic leukemia
Overproduction of white blood cells in the bone marrow
May experience fatigue and abdominal pain
Treated with medication and techniques
https://search.brave.com/images?q=chronic+granulyotic+leukemia+microscope&source=web
Trypanosomes
Group of protozoan parasites of the blood that cause two major diseases in people, African sleeping sickness and Chagas disease
Trypanosomes adapt to resist antiparasitic medications and evade the effects of specific medications when changing from one life cycle stage to another
Leads to increased amount of eosinophils
https://www.luc.edu/media/lucedu/biology111/protists/trypanosoma.jpg
African Sleeping Disease
Caused by Trypanosomes
Most commonly spread among humans via the bite of the teste fly
Chagas Disease
Caused by Trypanosomes
Most commonly transmitted by blood-sucking insect known as a “kissing bug”
Malaria
Caused by plasmodial parasite and is spread from host via the Anopheles mosquito in subtropical and tropical regions
Parasite travels to liver, matures, and then invades red blood cells throughout the body
Plasmodium infects erythrocytes and reproduces within them until the RBC bursts, releasing the parasites into the bloodstream to infect other red blood cells
Individuals infected often exhibit fever, chills, flu-like symptoms, and anemia every 48-72 hours as the plasmodium kills RBCs
Often treated with chloroquine and hospitalization
https://cdn.geekwire.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/171102-autoscope.png
Iron deficiency anemia
Most common form of anemia
Caused by a lack of iron, which is necessary to produce hemoglobin
Results in lower RBC count
Women are more likely to be affected
Caused by blood loss, poor iron absorption, or a diet poor in iron
Symptoms include brittle nails, fatigue, headache, pale skin color, and shortness of breath
Treatment includes iron supplements and Vitamin C
https://imagebank.hematology.org/getimagebyid/60223?size=2
Sickle-cell anemia
A genetic disease that causes body to produce abnormal erythrocytes
Abnormal hemoglobin causes RBCs to occasionally take on crescent shape
Abnormally shaped blood cells block small blood passages resulting in blood flow being blocked
Can lead to injury and death of tissue
RBCs affected live shorter period of 10-20 days resulting in lower RBC count
Affected individuals often feel pain from blocked blood vessels as well as fatigue
No cure but blood test can determine inheritance of disease
https://www.microscopyu.com/assets/gallery-images/pathology_sicklecellanemia40x02.jpg
Mononucleosis
Mononucleosis is a viral infection and is spread via saliva or close contact
Most people infected are between ages 15 and 24
Lymphocytes often appear atypical during infection and specific antibodies increase in number
Symptoms include drowsiness, fever, loss of appetite, swollen lymph nodes, and swollen spleen
Treated with non-steroidal inflammatory drugs, but virus remains dormant in individuals body for life
https://wfuogb.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Screen-Shot-2018-11-08-at-12.42.39-PM.png
Polycythemia
Characterized by an abnormal increase in the number of red blood cells
Increased blood volume increases risk of stroke or heart attack
Affects people around age of 60
Often result of genetic mutation that changes how erythrocytes are produced in bone marrow
Symptoms include fatigue, itching, and joint pain
Treatment includes prescription of aspirin or other blood thinners, and phlebotomy to remove excess blood
https://digitalassets.avantorsciences.com/adaptivemedia/rendition?id=9ee29d8f483e73b732c4e2e2d29793d72679bbba&vid=0a20f93cd737cf8e52cc9a33dae30cb5c4c82818&prid=bigweb&clid=SAPDAM
Blood typing: Gender
Difference between male and female blood can be found on the leukocytes
Leukocytes in blood of female human possess a Barr body, whereas male blood lacks a Barr body
Barr body
Resembles a small drumstick attached to nucleus of the cell and represents a condensed sex chromosome
Leukocytes in female blood possess this, but male blood does not
Layers of veins and arteries
Tunica externa: Outermost layer of veins and arteries; Largely made of collagen
Tunica media: Intermediate layer of veins and arteries; Significant smooth muscle component
Tunica intima: Deepest layer of veins and arteries; Made of endothelial (epithelial) cells that line the lumen
Veins vs arteries
Artery constriction or dilation is relied on to alter the partitioning of blood flow, resulting in arteries having a thicker tunica media compared to veins
Overall, arteries must be thicker than veins because blood pressure is higher in arteries than veins
Veins have a larger lumen diameter to tunica thickness
Veins are under low pressure, so vein lumen is often partially collapsed
Aorta
Largest artery of the body
Has own blood supply exemplified by the vasa vasorum (a blood vessel for the aorta)
Needs collagen fibers for strength/reinforcement
Needs elastin fibers for its expansion and recoil after systole
Atherosclerosis
Complex multistage disease
Low density lipoproteins that transport cholesterol can build up in lumen of blood vessels
Buildup induces immune response that culminates in the proliferation of fibrosis at the tunica media/tunica intima border which will partially occlude the lumen
Occlusions increase risk of thrombosis (blood clot)
Interventricular septum
Keeps pulmonary and systemic circuits separate
Provides an avenue for conducting system fibers to move through heart via bundle of His
Purkinje fibers within the heart
Noncontractile purkinje fibers are surrounded by contractile cardiac cells
Cells carry heart muscle potential from atrioventricular bundle down through interventricular septum before spread throughout walls of heart
Circulation of blood: Structures
Venous blood: deoxygenated; from body to heart
Superior and inferior vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Pulmonary trunk/arteries
Lungs: Oxygenates blood
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Bicuspid (mitral valve
Left ventricle
Aortic semilunar valve
Aorta: Distribute arterial blood to body
Unlabelled:
https://as1.ftcdn.net/jpg/01/63/50/36/1000_F_163503606_d1CJS6EL5EprTLJ0autrSDcP0wxNVWRz.jpg
Labelled:
https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5e48489da899cd09424943db/1615047158525-NRGD0O5YCN2CN2AP473Z/austin+kosier+heart+blood+flow+diagram+cardiac+circulation+pathway+steps
Human heart
Anterior unlabelled: https://o.quizlet.com/UntpVmaDUCLpuIFYw6Zetg_b.jpg
Anterior labelled: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295706446/figure/fig1/AS:669513959870479@1536635975999/Heart-anatomy-from-the-anterior-view-left-and-interior-view-right-Images-from.png
Anterior open unlabelled: https://i.pinimg.com/736x/18/db/52/18db5246f8e0e63cf32a0db8e3b39523.jpg
Anterior open labelled: https://media.gettyimages.com/id/188057943/vector/anatomy-of-heart-interior-frontal-section.jpg?s=170667a&w=gi&k=20&c=SG_mXEQVsIj9pmILzjiI__ae_y6iPFpaKSIxFbNkMvk=
Trabeculae carneae
Ridges
Found on inner surface of heart ventricles
Chordae tendinae
Fibrous chords that attach the papillary muscles to the bicuspid and tricuspid valves
Papillary muscles
Hold chords of chordae tendinae
Muscular structures found in ventricles of heart
Pillar-like
Pectinate muscles
Muscular ridges found in hearts atria
Feline veins
Superior and inferior vena cava: Right side of cat
Superior vena cava turns in brachiocephalic vein which branches into external jugular vein, internal jugular vein, and subclavian vein
Subclavian vein turns into axillary vein which turns into brachial vein which turns into deep brachial vein
Feline arteries
Aortic arch splits in brachiocephalic artery and left subclavian artery
Brachiocephalic artery branches into common carotid artery (left and right) and right subclavian artery
Right subclavian artery branches into subscapular artery and becomes brachial artery which becomes deep brachial artery
Human aortic arch
3 branches in humans
1) Brachiocephalic
2) Left common carotid artery
3) Left subclavian artery
Runs through neck on both sides in felines
Vagus Nerve X
Common carotid arteries
Internal jugular vein
