Exam 4 pt. 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Generally, how much filtrate is made each day? How much urine?

A

o ~180 L (47 gallons) of blood-derived filtrate is processed by the kidneys each day, only ~1.5L of urine is formed – less than 1%!
o The kidneys filter the body’s entire blood plasma volume 60x each day
o At rest, 20-25% of the body’s O2 supply is used by the kidneys

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2
Q

Define filtrate

A

o Filtrate: blood plasma minus its proteins; produced by glomerular filtration

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3
Q

Define urine

A

o Urine: metabolic wastes and unneeded substances; produced from filtrate

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4
Q

List the 3 processes involved in urine formation. What happens in each process?

A

o Glomerular Filtration: produces cell and protein-free filtrate
o Tubular Reabsorption: process of selectively reclaiming substances from filtrate and moving them back into blood
 Typically, 99% of water, and all glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed
o Tubular Secretion: process of selectively moving substances from blood into filtrate

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5
Q

What are the 3 layers of the filtration membrane?

A

o Fenestrated Endothelium of Glomerular Capillaries: allows all blood components except cells to pass
o Basement Membrane: allows solutes; blocks all but the smallest proteins
o Foot Processes of Podocytes of the Glomerular Capsule: filtration slits between foot processes, stop all remaining macromolecules

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6
Q

Define the 3 pressures involved in glomerular filtration and have a general idea of their valves.

A

o Outward Pressures: forces that promote the formation of filtrate
o Hydrostatic Pressure in Glomerular Capillaries (HPgc) – essentially glomerular blood pressure
 Chief force pushing water, solutes out of blood across the filtration membrane
 Quite high (55mmHg) compared to most capillary beds
 Maintained by the smaller size of efferent arteriole versus the afferent arteriole
o Inward Pressures: forces that inhibit the formation of filtrate
o Hydrostatic Pressure in the Capsular Space (HPcs) – pressure exerted by the filtrate in the glomerular capsule (~15mmHg)
o Colloid Osmotic Pressure in Glomerular Capillaries (OPgc) – the “pull” of the proteins in the blood (~30mmHg)

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7
Q

Define outward pressure

A

o Outward Pressures: forces that promote the formation of filtrate

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8
Q

Define hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillaries

A

o Hydrostatic Pressure in Glomerular Capillaries (HPgc) – essentially glomerular blood pressure
 Chief force pushing water, solutes out of blood across the filtration membrane
 Quite high (55mmHg) compared to most capillary beds
 Maintained by the smaller size of efferent arteriole versus the afferent arteriole

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9
Q

Define inward pressures

A

o Inward Pressures: forces that inhibit the formation of filtrate

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10
Q

Define hydrostatic pressure in capsular space

A

o Hydrostatic Pressure in the Capsular Space (HPcs) – pressure exerted by the filtrate in the glomerular capsule (~15mmHg)

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11
Q

Define Colloid Osmotic Pressure in Glomerular Capillaries (OPgc)

A

o Colloid Osmotic Pressure in Glomerular Capillaries (OPgc) – the “pull” of the proteins in the blood (~30mmHg)

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12
Q

Define NFP. Is it a net outward or inward force?

A

o Net Filtration Pressure (NFP): the sum of forces
 55mHg forcing out
 45mmHg forcing in
 Net: 10mmHg of outward force
o NFP is the pressure responsible for forming filtrate
o NFP is the main controllable factor for determining Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

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13
Q

What is GFR?

A

o GFR: the volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute
o Normal GFR = 120 - 125 mL/min

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14
Q

How is GFR used clinically? What 3 things determine GFR?

A

o GFR is directly proportional to:
 Net Filtration Pressure (NFP): main controllable factor, primary pressure is outward glomerular hydrostatic pressure, can be controlled by changing arteriole diameters
 Total surface area available for filtration – controlled by the contraction of mesangial cells
 Permeability of filtration membrane – much more permeable than other types of capillaries
o Large surface area and high permeability allow the relatively small NFP to produce huge amounts of filtrate

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15
Q

In terms of GFR, what is normal for a healthy adult? What values are associated with CKD? With renal failure?

A
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16
Q

Describe the relationship between GFR and systemic blood pressure.

A

o GFR is regulated to serve 2 important – and sometimes opposing – needs
o The kidneys need a relatively constant GFR to continue making filtrate
o The body needs a relatively constant blood pressure
o An increase in GFR increases urinary output and decreases BP
o A decrease in GFR decreases urinary output and increases BP

17
Q

What’s the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic controls?

A

o Intrinsic Controls: work locally within the kidney to maintain GFR – renal autoregulation
o Extrinsic Controls: neural and hormonal controls that maintain systemic blood pressure

18
Q

What is an appropriate MAP range for intrinsic controls to be in control?

A

o 80-180 mmHg

19
Q

Define myogenic mechanism. What happens when BP increases or decreases under myogenic mechanism?

A

o Myogenic Mechanism: smooth muscle contracts when stretched
 Increased BP -> Muscles Stretch -> Constriction of Afferent Arteriole
 Decreased BP -> Dilation of Afferent Arteriole
 Goals: protect the glomerulus from high BP by restricting blood flow, maintain normal NFP and GFR

20
Q

Define tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism. What group of cells directs this mechanism? What solute is driving this mechanism?

A

o Tubuloglomerular Feedback Mechanism: directed by the macula densa cells
 Responds to NaCl concentration
 GFR increases -> flow of filtrate increases -> decreased time for reabsorption -> higher levels of NaCl in filtrate
 Response: the afferent arteriole is constricted -> NFP and GFR are reduced -> increased time for NaCl reabsorption

21
Q

What systemic effects are seen in extrinsic neural control by the SNS? How does this alter BP?

A

o Extrinsic controls regulate GFR to maintain systemic BP – even if it hurts the kidneys!
o Ex: in the event of hypovolemia, extrinsic controls will override the intrinsic controls to ensure survival of the vital organs
o Neural Control by the Sympathetic Nervous System
 Normal Conditions: renal blood vessels are dilated, intrinsic controls running
 Abnormal Conditions (Low BP): norepinephrine, epinephrine are released
* Systemic vasoconstriction to raise BP
* Constriction of the afferent arterioles will decrease GFR
* Blood volume and blood pressure increase

22
Q

Outline how renin increases systemic blood pressure.

A

o Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
o The body’s main mechanism for increasing blood pressure
o 3 pathways to releasing renin from the granular cells
 Direct stimulation of granular cells by the SNS
 Simulation of the granular cells by activated macula densa cells – when NaCl concentration in filtrate is low
 Reduced stretch of granular cells
o Anuria: abnormally low urine output (< 50 mL/day); multiple causes

23
Q

What are some things that are reabsorbed in tubular reabsorption? Which portion of the renal tubule conducts the most reabsorption?

A

o Tubular reabsorption quickly reclaims most of the tubular contents and returns them to blood
o Tubular reabsorption is an elective transepithelial process. It starts as soon as filtrate enters the proximal tubule.
o Almost all organic nutrients are reabsorbed; reabsorption of water and ions is hormonally regulated and adjusted as needed
o Tubular reabsorption can be either active (ATP-requiring) or passive
o Two Routes:
 Transcellular: reabsorbed substances travel through cells of the tubule
 Paracellular: reabsorbed substances travel between cells of the tubule

24
Q

What is reabsorbed in the PCT?

A

 The PCT is the site of most reabsorption
 What is reabsorbed from the filtrate in the PCT?
* All the nutrients (glucose + amino acids)
* 65% of sodium + water
* Most of the electrolytes
* Nearly all uric acid and ~1/2 of the urea – these will be secreted into the filtrate again later!

25
What is reabsorbed in the Nephron Loop?
 In the nephron loop, reabsorption of water is no longer coupled to solute reabsorption  Descending Limb: water can leave, but solute cannot  Ascending Limb: solute can leave, but water cannot
26
What is reabsorbed in DCT?
 Reabsorption in the DCT varies with the body’s current needs – it is hormonally regulated  Most of the water and solutes have already been reabsorbed  Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH): released by the posterior pituitary gland, can cause an increase in reabsorption of water  Aldosterone: increases blood pressure and decreases K+ levels by promoting the reabsorption of Na+  Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP): released by cardiac atrial cells, decreases blood volume and blood pressure by reducing the reabsorption of Na+  Parathyroid Hormone: increases reabsorption of Ca2+ by the DCT
27
Refamiliarize yourself with ADH, aldosterone, ANP, and parathyroid hormone. What do each of these do?
28
What is tubular secretion? Make a list of things typically secreted.
o Tubular secretion is the reverse of tubular reabsorption o Tubular secretion occurs almost entirely in the PCT o In secretion, selected substances are moved from the peritubular capillaries, through the tubule cells, and back into the filtrate o Things that are often secreted: K+, H+, Ammonia, Creatinine, Organic Acids and Bases o Tubular secretion is important for:  Disposing of substances – drugs and metabolites – that are bound to plasma proteins  Eliminating undesirable substances - urea and uric acid - that were passively reabsorbed  Ridding the body of excess K+ - the aldosterone effect  Controlling pH by altering amounts of H+ or HCO3- in urine
29
What’s renal clearance?
o Renal Clearance: the volume of plasma that the kidneys can clear of a particular substance within a given time o Renal clearance tests can determine GFR, detect glomerular damage, and follow the progress of renal disease
30
What are the treatment options for renal failure?
o Renal Failure: a GFR < 15 mL/min  Formation of filtrate dramatically decreases or completely stops  Uremia: “urine in the blood” – ionic and hormonal imbalances, metabolic abnormalities, toxic molecule accumulation  Symptoms: fatigue, anorexia, nausea, mental status changes, cramps  Treatment: hemodialysis or kidney transplant
31
Be prepared to answer a question about what is “normal” or “abnormal” to be found in urine. And review the chart to recall what abnormal findings may indicate.
o Chemical Composition o 95% Water, 5% Solutes o Nitrogenous Wastes  Urea: largest solute component; formed from breakdown of amino acids  Uric Acid: product of nucleic acid metabolism  Creatinine: metabolite of creatine phosphate – found in large amounts in skeletal muscle o Normal Solutes in Urine: urea, Na+, K+, PO43-, SO42-, creatinine, uric acid  Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3- are occasionally seen in small amounts o Abnormal Solutes in Urine: blood proteins, WBCs, and bile pigments – presence of these can indicate pathology
32
Review the physical characteristics of urine (slide 25).
o Color and Transparency  Freshly voided urine is clear - pale to deep yellow  Urochrome: pigment that results from the body’s destruction of hemoglobin  More concentrated urine is deeper in color  Abnormal colors (pink, brown, red) can be caused by certain foods, medications, drugs, vitamins, and the presence of bile/blood  Cloudy urine may indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI) o Odor  Only slightly aromatic when fresh  Upon standing, develops an ammonia odor as bacteria metabolizes urea  May be altered by some drugs, foods, and diseases o pH  Slightly acidic (pH = ~6, range 4.5 to 8)  Acidic (high protein) or alkaline (vegetarian) diets will alter pH  Prolonged vomiting and UTIs can also raise pH o Specific Gravity  Ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of distilled water  Urine’s specific gravity ranges from 1.001 to 1.035
33
What’s the trigone of the bladder? What 3 openings form the trigone?
o Trigone: smooth triangular area outlined by the openings for the 2 ureters and the urethra o Ureters: slender tubes that actively carry urine away from the kidneys towards the bladder o Ureters are retroperitoneal continuations of the renal pelvis o Enter the base of the bladder – through the posterior wall o As bladder pressure increases, the distal ends of the ureters prevent backflow of urine into the ureters o Three Layers:  Mucosa  Muscularis: smooth muscle that contracts in response to stretch  Adventitia o Urethra: muscular tube that drains the urinary bladder o Mucosal lining is largely pseudostratified columnar epithelium – transitional epithelium near the bladder – stratified squamous near the external opening o Urethral Sphincters:  Internal Urethral Sphincter: involuntary/smooth muscle at the bladder-urethral junction – contracts to open  External Urethral Sphincter: voluntary/skeletal muscle surrounding the urethra as it passes the pelvic floor – relaxes to open
34
Name the smooth muscle of the bladder.
35
What is considered the “max capacity” of the bladder?
o When empty, the bladder collapses and rugae appear o During filling, the bladder expands and rises superiorly, but there is no significant rise in internal pressure o Moderately Full Bladder:  ~12 cm/5 in long  500mL/1 pint of urine o Max capacity is about 1,000mL – an overfilled bladder can burst!
36
Compare/contrast the male and female urethras.
o Female  3-4 cm/1.5 in long  Tightly bound to the anterior vaginal wall  External urethral orifice is anterior to the vaginal orifice o Male  Carries both semen and urine  Much longer – 20 cm/8 in - has 3 named regions * Prostatic Urethra: (2.5 cm) within prostate gland * Intermediate/Membranous Urethra: (2 cm) passes through urogenital diaphragm from prostate to root of penis * Spongy Urethra: (15 cm) passes through the penis, opens via external urethral orifice
37
Where are the internal and external urethral sphincters located?
o Internal Urethral Sphincter: involuntary/smooth muscle at the bladder-urethral junction – contracts to open o External Urethral Sphincter: voluntary/skeletal muscle surrounding the urethra as it passes the pelvic floor – relaxes to open
38
Outline the micturition reflex – as is done on slide 33! What sphincter relaxes to open? Which contracts? Which sphincter is autonomically controlled? Which is somatically controlled?
o Three Simultaneous Events  Contraction of the detrusor muscle by ANS  Opening of internal urethral sphincter by ANS * Opens via contraction!  Opening of external urethral sphincter by somatic nervous system * Opens via relaxation!