Exam 3 slides 1 Flashcards
Define the 4 processes involved in successful gas exchange. Be sure to know which direction Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are diffusing in both internal and external respiration.
o Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing): inspiration and expiration
Air moving in and out of the lungs
o External Respiration
O2 diffuses from the lungs into the blood
CO2 diffuses from the blood into the lungs
o Transportation of Respiratory Gases
Completed by the cardiovascular system – blood is the vehicle
o Internal Respiration
O2 diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells
CO2 diffuses from the tissue cells into the blood
Pulmonary Ventilation (breathing)
inspiration and expiration
Air moving in and out of the lungs
External Respiration
O2 diffuses from the lungs into the blood
CO2 diffuses from the blood into the lungs
Transportation of Respiratory Gases
Completed by the cardiovascular system – blood is the vehicle
Internal Respiration
O2 diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells
CO2 diffuses from the tissue cells into the blood
What is the function of the upper respiratory tract?
o Upper Respiratory System = Nose -> Larynx
The URS is part of the “conducting zone”
* Fairly-rigid conduits down to the microscopic sites of gas exchange
* Functions to warm, humidify, and filter air
* Mucus helps warm up air and nose hairs helps filter
URS tract infection – Sx; headache, fever, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing, sore throat, and cough
What is the function of the lower respiratory tract?
o Lower Respiratory System = Larynx -> Alveoli
Gas Exchange: The main function of the lower respiratory tract is to facilitate the exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the air in the lungs and the bloodstream. This process occurs in the alveoli, tiny air sacs located at the ends of the bronchioles.
Air Conduction: The lower respiratory tract conducts air from the upper respiratory tract (nose, mouth, and pharynx) to the lungs. The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles serve as passageways for air to enter and exit the lungs.
Mucus Production and Ciliary Action: The lining of the lower respiratory tract produces mucus that helps trap dust, particles, and pathogens present in the inhaled air. Cilia, small hair-like structures on the cells lining the airways, then move this mucus along with trapped particles upward toward the throat to be swallowed or expelled through coughing.
Regulation of Airflow: The smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles can contract or relax to regulate the diameter of the airways. This process, known as bronchoconstriction or bronchodilation, helps control airflow and maintain proper ventilation of the lungs.
Humidification and Warmth: As air travels through the lower respiratory tract, it is humidified and warmed to body temperature. This ensures that the air reaching the delicate alveoli is at the right conditions for gas exchange and prevents damage to the lung tissue
Nose Functions
Functions of the Nose
* Provides an airway
* Moistens and warms entering air
* Filters/cleans entering air
* Serves as a resonating chamber for speech
* Houses olfactory receptors
The nasal cavity functions
Olfactory Mucosa contains olfactory epithelium with smell receptors
Respiratory Mucosa lines the remainder of the nasal cavity
* Pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium
* Mucus and serous secretions contain lysozyme and defensins
o About 1 quart/day!
* Cilia move contaminated mucus posteriorly to the throat for swallowing/digestion
o Cilia are slowed by cold temperatures and harmed by smoking
* Inspired air is warmed by plexuses of capillaries and veins
* A rich supply of sensory nerve endings will trigger a sneeze upon contact with irritants
Nasal Conchae
* 3 conchae protrude medially from each lateral wall of the cavity - superior, middle, and inferior
* Covered in mucosa
* Increase mucosal surface area and turbulence for enhanced warming/filtering
Nasal Meatus
* The groove inferior to each concha
* Inhalation: air is filtered, warmed, moistened
* Exhalation: heat and moisture are reclaimed
The pharynx functions
A muscular tube from the base of the skull to C6
Commonly called “the throat”
Connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and esophagus
Composed of skeletal muscle
Three Regions
* Nasopharynx
o Passageway for air posterior to the nasal cavity
o Lined by pseudostratified, columnar epithelium
o Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
o The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
o Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
Protected by the tubal tonsils
* Oropharynx
o Passageway for food AND air – exists from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
o Lined by more protective, stratified, squamous epithelium
o The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
o The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue
* Laryngopharynx
o Passageway for food AND air
o Lined by stratified, squamous epithelium
o Posterior to the upright epiglottis/larynx, extends to the inferior edge of the cricoid cartilage
o Continuous with the esophagus
Nasopharynx
o Passageway for air posterior to the nasal cavity
o Lined by pseudostratified, columnar epithelium
o Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
o The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
o Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
Protected by the tubal tonsils
- Oropharynx
o Passageway for food AND air – exists from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
o Lined by more protective, stratified, squamous epithelium
o The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
o The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue
- Laryngopharynx
o Passageway for food AND air
o Lined by stratified, squamous epithelium
o Posterior to the upright epiglottis/larynx, extends to the inferior edge of the cricoid cartilage
o Continuous with the esophagus
The larynx functions
Commonly called “the voice box”
Attaches to the hyoid bone and extends from C3 to C6
Continuous with the trachea
Serves three functions:
* Provides a patent airway
* Routes air and food into the proper channels
* Produces sound/vocalization – houses the vocal folds
Structurally, an intricate arrangement of 9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments
Except for the epiglottis, all cartilage is hyaline cartilage
Thyroid Cartilage
large, shaped like a shield
* Laryngeal Prominence = the Adam’s apple
* Secondary to the secretion of sex hormones during puberty, it is typically larger in males
Cricoid Cartilage
ring-shaped
* Three small, paired cartilages form the posterior and lateral walls
Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate
Epiglottis
flexible, spoon-shaped, elastic cartilage
* Covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing
Cough Reflex
triggered by anything other than air entering the airway
Vocal Ligaments
deep to the laryngeal mucosa, attach arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilage, form the core of the vocal folds
Vocal Folds
true vocal cords
* Vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up
* Lack blood vessels and appear pearly white
* Glottis: the opening between the vocal folds
Vestibular Folds
false vocal cords
* Lie superiorly to the vocal folds
* Play no part in sound production
* Assist in closing the glottis during swallowing
The trachea
Commonly called “the windpipe”
Extends from the larynx down to the mediastinum
Composed of three layers
* Mucosa: ciliated, pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells
* Submucosa: connective tissue with seromucous glands
* Adventitia: connective tissue, encases 16 to 20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
The trachea is flexible enough to move inferiorly and stretch during inspiration and recoil during exhalation; the cartilage rings prevent collapse
The posterior surface of the tracheal rings are connected by the smooth muscle trachealis – allows the esophagus to expand when food is swallowed
Carina: projects posteriorly from the inner surface of the last tracheal cartilage, marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi
Mucosa
ciliated, pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells
Submucosa
connective tissue with seromucous glands
Adventitia
connective tissue, encases 16 to 20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
Carina
projects posteriorly from the inner surface of the last tracheal cartilage, marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi
Bronchi
Air passageways in the lungs branch ~23 times; pattern is called the bronchial tree
The trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi at about T7
Main bronchi plunge into the hilum of each lung
The right main bronchi is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left
Inside the lung, each main bronchi divides into lobar or secondary bronchi
How many lobar/secondary bronchi do you have?
Lobar bronchi divide into segmental or tertiary bronchi
Bronchi less than 1 mm in diameter are called bronchioles
Terminal Bronchioles: the smallest bronchioles, less than .5mm in diameter
Bronchioles
- What bones make up the external nose and frame the nasal cavity?
External Nose and 2 -Nasal Cavity
o External nose is created by the nasal, frontal, and maxillary bones + hyaline cartilage
o Nasal cavity is within and posterior to the external nose – divided by nasal septum
o Roof formed by the ethmoid and sphenoid bones; floor formed by hard and soft palates
Name some components of mucus.
o Mucus and serous secretions contain lysozyme and defensins
- Define cilia and state its function.
o Cilia move contaminated mucus posteriorly to the throat for swallowing/digestion
o Cilia are slowed by cold temperatures and harmed by smoking
What is the role of nasal conchae?
3 conchae protrude medially from each lateral wall of the cavity - superior, middle, and inferior
Covered in mucosa
Increase mucosal surface area and turbulence for enhanced warming/filtering
What is the role of the nasal sinuses?
o Paranasal sinuses
Form a ring around the nasal cavity
Located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
Functions:
* Lighten the skull
* Give resonance to the voice
* Produce mucus/warm and moisten the air
Name the 3 divisions of the pharynx in order from superior to inferior. What type of epithelial lining exists in each division?
o A muscular tube from the base of the skull to C6
o Commonly called “the throat”
o Connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and esophagus
o Composed of skeletal muscle
o Three Regions
Nasopharynx
* Passageway for air posterior to the nasal cavity
* Lined by pseudostratified, columnar epithelium
* Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
* The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
* Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
* Protected by the tubal tonsils
Oropharynx
* Passageway for food AND air – exists from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
* Lined by more protective, stratified, squamous epithelium
* The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
* The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue
Laryngopharynx
* Passageway for food AND air
* Lined by stratified, squamous epithelium
* Posterior to the upright epiglottis/larynx, extends to the inferior edge of the cricoid cartilage
* Continuous with the esophagus
- Be familiar with how the nasopharynx and the larynx are protected during swallowing.
o Nasopharynx
Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
o Larynx
Attaches to the hyoid bone and extends from C3 to C6
Continuous with the trachea
Serves three functions:
* Provides a patent airway
* Routes air and food into the proper channels
* Produces sound/vocalization – houses the vocal folds
Structurally, an intricate arrangement of 9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments
Except for the epiglottis, all cartilage is hyaline cartilage
Thyroid Cartilage: large, shaped like a shield
Laryngeal Prominence = the Adam’s apple
Secondary to the secretion of sex hormones during puberty, it is typically larger in males
Cricoid Cartilage: ring-shaped
Three small, paired cartilages form the posterior and lateral walls
Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate
Epiglottis: flexible, spoon-shaped, elastic cartilage
Covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing
Cough Reflex: triggered by anything other than air entering the airway
Be prepared to locate 4 different tonsils.
Nasopharynx
The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
* Protected by the tubal tonsils
Oropharynx
The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue
Know the anatomical and functional differences between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage.
o Thyroid Cartilage: large, shaped like a shield
o Laryngeal Prominence = the Adam’s apple
o Secondary to the secretion of sex hormones during puberty, it is typically larger in males
o Cricoid Cartilage: ring-shaped
o Three small, paired cartilages form the posterior and lateral walls
o Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate
- What kind of cartilage makes up most of the cartilage of the larynx? How about the epiglottis?
Hyaline cartilage, epiglottis is elastic cartilage
What is the difference in function between the vocal folds and vestibular folds? Which lies superior to the other?
o Vocal Folds: true vocal cords
Vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up
Lack blood vessels and appear pearly white
Glottis: the opening between the vocal folds
o Vestibular Folds: false vocal cords
Lie superiorly to the vocal folds
Play no part in sound production
Assist in closing the glottis during swallowing
What is the glottis?
o Glottis: the opening between the vocal folds
What aspect of speech production is most frequently addressed in speech therapy? What aspect is determined by the length/tension of the vocal cords?
Enunciation: determined by the activity of the muscles of the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips
Vocal Pitch: determined by the length and tension of the vocal cords
As the larynx grows, the vocal folds become thicker and longer – the voice deepens
What is the Valsalva maneuver? What are some uses for it?
it’s a technique used for tachycardia or airforce members to not pass out
What is the significance of the trachea’s cartilaginous rings being C-shaped? What connects the ends of the C-shape posteriorly to make tracheal rings?
it’s to give space for the esophagus to pass food through, if it wasn’t that shape you would feel like there’s something stuck in your throat.
What marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi?
o carina
List what enters the medial hilum of each lung.
o a main bronchus that divides based on the lobar anatomy.
o a pulmonary artery.
o superior and inferior pulmonary veins.
o lymph nodes and lymphatic channels.
o bronchial arteries and veins.
o autonomic nerves.
List out the divisions of the bronchial tree starting with the trachea and ending with the alveoli. Be familiar with this order!
Air passageways in the lungs branch ~23 times; pattern is called the bronchial tree
The trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi at about T7
Main bronchi plunge into the hilum of each lung
The right main bronchi is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left
Inside the lung, each main bronchi divides into lobar or secondary bronchi
How many lobar/secondary bronchi do you have?
Lobar bronchi divide into segmental or tertiary bronchi
Bronchi less than 1 mm in diameter are called bronchioles
Terminal Bronchioles: the smallest bronchioles, less than .5mm in diameter
Respiratory Bronchioles -> Alveolar Ducts -> Alveolar Sacs -> Alveoli
- Define type I and type II alveolar cells.
o Alveolar walls are made of a single layer of squamous epithelial cells called type I alveolar cells
A sheet of tissue paper is 15x thicker!
o Type II alveolar cells are scattered, cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins
Surfactant: fluid that contains a detergent-like substance; coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
Define surface tension. What is surfactant? What is its functional importance?
o Surface Tension: attracts liquid molecules to each other, resists any force that attempts to increase the liquid’s surface area
o Surfactant: fluid that contains a detergent-like substance; coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
Know the physiological importance of alveolar pores.
o Alveolar Pores: openings that connect adjacent alveoli
o Equalize air pressure throughout the lung
o Allow for re-routing in the event of collapsed/diseased alveoli
Be prepared to label the anatomical features of a lung – apex, base, hilum, fissures, lobes, cardiac notch etc.
What’s pleurisy?
o Inflammation of the pleurae – causes increased friction
o Typically results from pneumonia
o Symptom: stabbing pain with each breath
o As the disease progresses, extra fluid is produced – friction and pain are reduced, but pressure is exerted on the lungs
o Pleural Effusion: fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity, can sometimes be drained
