Exam 3 slides 1

Question 1

Define the 4 processes involved in successful gas exchange. Be sure to know which direction Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are diffusing in both internal and external respiration.

Answer 1

o Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing): inspiration and expiration
 Air moving in and out of the lungs
o External Respiration
 O2 diffuses from the lungs into the blood
 CO2 diffuses from the blood into the lungs
o Transportation of Respiratory Gases
 Completed by the cardiovascular system – blood is the vehicle
o Internal Respiration
 O2 diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells
 CO2 diffuses from the tissue cells into the blood

Question 2

Pulmonary Ventilation (breathing)

Answer 2

inspiration and expiration
 Air moving in and out of the lungs

Question 3

External Respiration

Answer 3

 O2 diffuses from the lungs into the blood
 CO2 diffuses from the blood into the lungs

Question 4

Transportation of Respiratory Gases

Answer 4

 Completed by the cardiovascular system – blood is the vehicle

Question 5

Internal Respiration

Answer 5

 O2 diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells
 CO2 diffuses from the tissue cells into the blood

Question 6

What is the function of the upper respiratory tract?

Answer 6

o Upper Respiratory System = Nose -> Larynx
 The URS is part of the “conducting zone”
* Fairly-rigid conduits down to the microscopic sites of gas exchange
* Functions to warm, humidify, and filter air
* Mucus helps warm up air and nose hairs helps filter
 URS tract infection – Sx; headache, fever, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing, sore throat, and cough

Question 7

What is the function of the lower respiratory tract?

Answer 7

o Lower Respiratory System = Larynx -> Alveoli
Gas Exchange: The main function of the lower respiratory tract is to facilitate the exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the air in the lungs and the bloodstream. This process occurs in the alveoli, tiny air sacs located at the ends of the bronchioles.

Air Conduction: The lower respiratory tract conducts air from the upper respiratory tract (nose, mouth, and pharynx) to the lungs. The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles serve as passageways for air to enter and exit the lungs.

Mucus Production and Ciliary Action: The lining of the lower respiratory tract produces mucus that helps trap dust, particles, and pathogens present in the inhaled air. Cilia, small hair-like structures on the cells lining the airways, then move this mucus along with trapped particles upward toward the throat to be swallowed or expelled through coughing.

Regulation of Airflow: The smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles can contract or relax to regulate the diameter of the airways. This process, known as bronchoconstriction or bronchodilation, helps control airflow and maintain proper ventilation of the lungs.

Humidification and Warmth: As air travels through the lower respiratory tract, it is humidified and warmed to body temperature. This ensures that the air reaching the delicate alveoli is at the right conditions for gas exchange and prevents damage to the lung tissue

Question 8

Nose Functions

Answer 8

Functions of the Nose
* Provides an airway
* Moistens and warms entering air
* Filters/cleans entering air
* Serves as a resonating chamber for speech
* Houses olfactory receptors

Question 9

The nasal cavity functions

Answer 9

Olfactory Mucosa contains olfactory epithelium with smell receptors
Respiratory Mucosa lines the remainder of the nasal cavity
* Pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium
* Mucus and serous secretions contain lysozyme and defensins
o About 1 quart/day!
* Cilia move contaminated mucus posteriorly to the throat for swallowing/digestion
o Cilia are slowed by cold temperatures and harmed by smoking
* Inspired air is warmed by plexuses of capillaries and veins
* A rich supply of sensory nerve endings will trigger a sneeze upon contact with irritants
Nasal Conchae
* 3 conchae protrude medially from each lateral wall of the cavity - superior, middle, and inferior
* Covered in mucosa
* Increase mucosal surface area and turbulence for enhanced warming/filtering
Nasal Meatus
* The groove inferior to each concha
* Inhalation: air is filtered, warmed, moistened
* Exhalation: heat and moisture are reclaimed

Question 10

The pharynx functions

Answer 10

 A muscular tube from the base of the skull to C6
 Commonly called “the throat”
 Connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and esophagus
 Composed of skeletal muscle
 Three Regions
* Nasopharynx
o Passageway for air posterior to the nasal cavity
o Lined by pseudostratified, columnar epithelium
o Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
o The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
o Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
 Protected by the tubal tonsils
* Oropharynx
o Passageway for food AND air – exists from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
o Lined by more protective, stratified, squamous epithelium
o The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
o The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue
* Laryngopharynx
o Passageway for food AND air
o Lined by stratified, squamous epithelium
o Posterior to the upright epiglottis/larynx, extends to the inferior edge of the cricoid cartilage
o Continuous with the esophagus

Question 11

Nasopharynx

Answer 11

o Passageway for air posterior to the nasal cavity
o Lined by pseudostratified, columnar epithelium
o Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
o The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
o Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
 Protected by the tubal tonsils

Question 12

• Oropharynx

Answer 12

o Passageway for food AND air – exists from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
o Lined by more protective, stratified, squamous epithelium
o The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
o The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue

Question 13

• Laryngopharynx

Answer 13

o Passageway for food AND air
o Lined by stratified, squamous epithelium
o Posterior to the upright epiglottis/larynx, extends to the inferior edge of the cricoid cartilage
o Continuous with the esophagus

Question 14

The larynx functions

Answer 14

 Commonly called “the voice box”
 Attaches to the hyoid bone and extends from C3 to C6
 Continuous with the trachea
 Serves three functions:
* Provides a patent airway
* Routes air and food into the proper channels
* Produces sound/vocalization – houses the vocal folds
 Structurally, an intricate arrangement of 9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments
 Except for the epiglottis, all cartilage is hyaline cartilage

Question 15

Thyroid Cartilage

Answer 15

large, shaped like a shield
* Laryngeal Prominence = the Adam’s apple
* Secondary to the secretion of sex hormones during puberty, it is typically larger in males

Question 16

Cricoid Cartilage

Answer 16

ring-shaped
* Three small, paired cartilages form the posterior and lateral walls
 Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate

Question 17

Epiglottis

Answer 17

flexible, spoon-shaped, elastic cartilage
* Covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing

Question 18

 Cough Reflex

Answer 18

triggered by anything other than air entering the airway

Question 19

 Vocal Ligaments

Answer 19

deep to the laryngeal mucosa, attach arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilage, form the core of the vocal folds

Question 20

 Vocal Folds

Answer 20

true vocal cords
* Vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up
* Lack blood vessels and appear pearly white
* Glottis: the opening between the vocal folds

Question 21

Vestibular Folds

Answer 21

false vocal cords
* Lie superiorly to the vocal folds
* Play no part in sound production
* Assist in closing the glottis during swallowing

Question 22

The trachea

Answer 22

 Commonly called “the windpipe”
 Extends from the larynx down to the mediastinum
 Composed of three layers
* Mucosa: ciliated, pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells
* Submucosa: connective tissue with seromucous glands
* Adventitia: connective tissue, encases 16 to 20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
 The trachea is flexible enough to move inferiorly and stretch during inspiration and recoil during exhalation; the cartilage rings prevent collapse
 The posterior surface of the tracheal rings are connected by the smooth muscle trachealis – allows the esophagus to expand when food is swallowed
 Carina: projects posteriorly from the inner surface of the last tracheal cartilage, marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi

Question 23

Mucosa

Answer 23

ciliated, pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells

Question 24

Submucosa

Answer 24

connective tissue with seromucous glands

Question 25

Adventitia

Answer 25

connective tissue, encases 16 to 20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings

Question 26

Carina

Answer 26

projects posteriorly from the inner surface of the last tracheal cartilage, marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi

Question 27

Bronchi

Answer 27

 Air passageways in the lungs branch ~23 times; pattern is called the bronchial tree
 The trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi at about T7
 Main bronchi plunge into the hilum of each lung
 The right main bronchi is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left
 Inside the lung, each main bronchi divides into lobar or secondary bronchi
 How many lobar/secondary bronchi do you have?
 Lobar bronchi divide into segmental or tertiary bronchi
 Bronchi less than 1 mm in diameter are called bronchioles
 Terminal Bronchioles: the smallest bronchioles, less than .5mm in diameter

Question 28

Bronchioles

Question 29

• What bones make up the external nose and frame the nasal cavity?

Answer 29

External Nose and 2 -Nasal Cavity
o External nose is created by the nasal, frontal, and maxillary bones + hyaline cartilage
o Nasal cavity is within and posterior to the external nose – divided by nasal septum
o Roof formed by the ethmoid and sphenoid bones; floor formed by hard and soft palates

Question 30

Name some components of mucus.

Answer 30

o Mucus and serous secretions contain lysozyme and defensins

Question 31

• Define cilia and state its function.

Answer 31

o Cilia move contaminated mucus posteriorly to the throat for swallowing/digestion
o Cilia are slowed by cold temperatures and harmed by smoking

Question 32

What is the role of nasal conchae?

Answer 32

 3 conchae protrude medially from each lateral wall of the cavity - superior, middle, and inferior
 Covered in mucosa
 Increase mucosal surface area and turbulence for enhanced warming/filtering

Question 33

What is the role of the nasal sinuses?

Answer 33

o Paranasal sinuses
 Form a ring around the nasal cavity
 Located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
 Functions:
* Lighten the skull
* Give resonance to the voice
* Produce mucus/warm and moisten the air

Question 34

Name the 3 divisions of the pharynx in order from superior to inferior. What type of epithelial lining exists in each division?

Answer 34

o A muscular tube from the base of the skull to C6
o Commonly called “the throat”
o Connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and esophagus
o Composed of skeletal muscle
o Three Regions
 Nasopharynx
* Passageway for air posterior to the nasal cavity
* Lined by pseudostratified, columnar epithelium
* Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
* The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
* Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
* Protected by the tubal tonsils
 Oropharynx
* Passageway for food AND air – exists from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
* Lined by more protective, stratified, squamous epithelium
* The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
* The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue
 Laryngopharynx
* Passageway for food AND air
* Lined by stratified, squamous epithelium
* Posterior to the upright epiglottis/larynx, extends to the inferior edge of the cricoid cartilage
* Continuous with the esophagus

Question 35

• Be familiar with how the nasopharynx and the larynx are protected during swallowing.

Answer 35

o Nasopharynx
 Typically, the soft palate and uvula close the nasopharynx during swallowing
o Larynx
 Attaches to the hyoid bone and extends from C3 to C6
 Continuous with the trachea
 Serves three functions:
* Provides a patent airway
* Routes air and food into the proper channels
* Produces sound/vocalization – houses the vocal folds
 Structurally, an intricate arrangement of 9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments
 Except for the epiglottis, all cartilage is hyaline cartilage
 Thyroid Cartilage: large, shaped like a shield
 Laryngeal Prominence = the Adam’s apple
 Secondary to the secretion of sex hormones during puberty, it is typically larger in males
 Cricoid Cartilage: ring-shaped
 Three small, paired cartilages form the posterior and lateral walls
 Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate
 Epiglottis: flexible, spoon-shaped, elastic cartilage
 Covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing
 Cough Reflex: triggered by anything other than air entering the airway

Question 36

Be prepared to locate 4 different tonsils.

Answer 36

Nasopharynx
 The posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil (the “adenoids”)
 Pharyngotympanic Tubes: drain the middle ear cavities and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
* Protected by the tubal tonsils
Oropharynx
 The paired palatine tonsils are embedded in the lateral walls
 The lingual tonsil exists on the posterior surface of the tongue

Question 37

Know the anatomical and functional differences between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage.

Answer 37

o Thyroid Cartilage: large, shaped like a shield
o Laryngeal Prominence = the Adam’s apple
o Secondary to the secretion of sex hormones during puberty, it is typically larger in males
o Cricoid Cartilage: ring-shaped
o Three small, paired cartilages form the posterior and lateral walls
o Arytenoid, Cuneiform, Corniculate

Question 38

• What kind of cartilage makes up most of the cartilage of the larynx? How about the epiglottis?

Answer 38

Hyaline cartilage, epiglottis is elastic cartilage

Question 39

What is the difference in function between the vocal folds and vestibular folds? Which lies superior to the other?

Answer 39

o Vocal Folds: true vocal cords
 Vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up
 Lack blood vessels and appear pearly white
 Glottis: the opening between the vocal folds
o Vestibular Folds: false vocal cords
 Lie superiorly to the vocal folds
 Play no part in sound production
 Assist in closing the glottis during swallowing

Question 40

What is the glottis?

Answer 40

o Glottis: the opening between the vocal folds

Question 41

What aspect of speech production is most frequently addressed in speech therapy? What aspect is determined by the length/tension of the vocal cords?

Answer 41

Enunciation: determined by the activity of the muscles of the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips
Vocal Pitch: determined by the length and tension of the vocal cords
As the larynx grows, the vocal folds become thicker and longer – the voice deepens

Question 42

What is the Valsalva maneuver? What are some uses for it?

Answer 42

it’s a technique used for tachycardia or airforce members to not pass out

Question 43

What is the significance of the trachea’s cartilaginous rings being C-shaped? What connects the ends of the C-shape posteriorly to make tracheal rings?

Answer 43

it’s to give space for the esophagus to pass food through, if it wasn’t that shape you would feel like there’s something stuck in your throat.

Question 44

What marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi?

Answer 44

o carina

Question 45

List what enters the medial hilum of each lung.

Answer 45

o a main bronchus that divides based on the lobar anatomy.
o a pulmonary artery.
o superior and inferior pulmonary veins.
o lymph nodes and lymphatic channels.
o bronchial arteries and veins.
o autonomic nerves.

Question 46

List out the divisions of the bronchial tree starting with the trachea and ending with the alveoli. Be familiar with this order!

Answer 46

Air passageways in the lungs branch ~23 times; pattern is called the bronchial tree
The trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi at about T7
Main bronchi plunge into the hilum of each lung
The right main bronchi is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left
Inside the lung, each main bronchi divides into lobar or secondary bronchi
How many lobar/secondary bronchi do you have?
Lobar bronchi divide into segmental or tertiary bronchi
Bronchi less than 1 mm in diameter are called bronchioles
Terminal Bronchioles: the smallest bronchioles, less than .5mm in diameter
Respiratory Bronchioles -> Alveolar Ducts -> Alveolar Sacs -> Alveoli

Question 47

• Define type I and type II alveolar cells.

Answer 47

o Alveolar walls are made of a single layer of squamous epithelial cells called type I alveolar cells
 A sheet of tissue paper is 15x thicker!
o Type II alveolar cells are scattered, cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins
 Surfactant: fluid that contains a detergent-like substance; coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

Question 48

Define surface tension. What is surfactant? What is its functional importance?

Answer 48

o Surface Tension: attracts liquid molecules to each other, resists any force that attempts to increase the liquid’s surface area
o Surfactant: fluid that contains a detergent-like substance; coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

Question 49

Know the physiological importance of alveolar pores.

Answer 49

o Alveolar Pores: openings that connect adjacent alveoli
o Equalize air pressure throughout the lung
o Allow for re-routing in the event of collapsed/diseased alveoli

Question 50

Be prepared to label the anatomical features of a lung – apex, base, hilum, fissures, lobes, cardiac notch etc.

Question 51

What’s pleurisy?

Answer 51

o Inflammation of the pleurae – causes increased friction
o Typically results from pneumonia
o Symptom: stabbing pain with each breath
o As the disease progresses, extra fluid is produced – friction and pain are reduced, but pressure is exerted on the lungs
o Pleural Effusion: fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity, can sometimes be drained