Exam 4 (Psych (Questions))

Question 1

Suppose that you are given several pieces of information, and you must infer whether the logical consequence of that information is correct. The task you are performing is called
a. decision making.
b. insightful problem solving.
c. divergent thinking.
d. deductive reasoning.

Answer 1

d. deductive reasoning.

Question 2

Here is a reasoning problem: If Mary is a psychology major at your college then she must take statistics. Mary graduates from your college without taking statistics. Therefore, Mary is not a psychology major. What kind of problem is this?
a. Analogy
b. Conditional reasoning problem
c. The crystal-ball technique
d. Syllogism

Answer 2

b. Conditional reasoning problem

Question 3

Julio has been told, “If your name appears on the list outside Dr. Forest’s office, you’ll be in the psychology honors class next semester.” Julio’s name does indeed appear on the list. Julio concludes that he will be in the psychology honors class next semester. Julio is using
a. conditional reasoning.
b. the framing effect.
c. decision making.
d. hindsight bias

Answer 3

a. conditional reasoning.

Question 4

Here is a reasoning problem: “Some vegetables have seeds. Some things that have seeds are fruits. Therefore, some vegetables are fruits.” What kind of reasoning does this represent?
a. A syllogism
b. Conditional reasoning
c. Propositional reasoning
d. The availability heuristic

Answer 4

a. A syllogism

Question 5

Consider the following problem: “Some college students are bright. All bright people are hard working. Therefore, all college students are hard working.” What kind of thinking task does this problem represent?
a. Propositional reasoning
b. Problem solving
c. A syllogism
d. Decision making

Answer 5

c. A syllogism

Question 6

Here is a reasoning problem. “All writers are creative. Some actors are creative. Therefore, some actors are writers.” This is an example of
a. propositional reasoning.
b. problem solving.
c. decision making.
d. a syllogism.

Answer 6

d. a syllogism.

Question 7

A professor knows that if it is raining outside, the window of her office will be wet. She looks at her window and notices that it is wet. She, therefore, concludes that it must be raining outside. Which kind of reasoning is she using?
a. Affirming the consequent
b. Affirming the antecedent
c. Denying the consequent
d. Denying the antecedent

Answer 7

a. Affirming the consequent

Question 8

Here is a reasoning problem: “If today is Tuesday then my cognition class meets this morning. Today is not Tuesday. Therefore, my cognition class does not meet this morning.” What kind of reasoning does this represent?
a. Affirming the consequent
b. Denying the consequent
c. Denying the antecedent
d. Affirming the antecedent

Answer 8

c. Denying the antecedent

Question 9

Yesterday, Dr. Ling announced to his biopsychology class, “If we are going to have a review session on Tuesday, everyone in the class will receive an e-mail message on Friday.” Elspeth is enrolled in the class, and she did not receive a message on Friday. Based on these premises, she concludes that the class will not have a review session on Tuesday. She is using the kind of reasoning known as
a. affirming the antecedent.
b. affirming the consequent.
c. denying the antecedent.
d. denying the consequent.

Answer 9

d. denying the consequent.

Question 10

Which of the following kinds of propositional reasoning is actually valid?
a. Affirming the antecedent
b. Affirming the consequent
c. Denying the antecedent
d. Disproving the antecedent

Answer 10

a. Affirming the antecedent

Question 11

The discussion about conditional reasoning pointed out that
a. the easiest kind of conditional reasoning task is denying the consequent.
b. conditional reasoning tasks are much more difficult to solve than syllogisms.
c. negative terms (e.g., never) do not affect the difficulty of a conditional reasoning problem.
d. the central executive is especially active on conditional reasoning tasks.

Answer 11

d. the central executive is especially active on conditional reasoning tasks.

Question 12

Heuristics are relevant when we try to answer a reasoning problem because
a. we carefully assess the logic behind each reasoning problem, rather than responding quickly.
b. we often answer a reasoning problem by using a heuristic that a conclusion is a “good bet,” even if it is not always true.
c. we are especially accurate on reasoning problems that involve “affirming the consequent.”
d. we are significantly more accurate if we try decision-making strategies in trying to solve reasoning problems.

Answer 12

b. we often answer a reasoning problem by using a heuristic that a conclusion is a “good bet,” even if it is not always true.

Question 13

Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary of Type 1 and Type 2 processing, in connection with reasoning and decision making?
a. Rika: “In Type 1 processing, we make very careful judgments; in Type 2 processing, we don’t really care about our accuracy.”
b. Joe: “Adults consistently use Type 1 processing; children and adolescents consistently use Type 2 processing.”
c. Heather: “Type 1 processing is used for reasoning; Type 2 processing is used for decision making.”
d. Frank: “Type 1 processing doesn’t require much conscious attention; Type 2 processing is slow, and we need to pay close attention.”

Answer 13

d. Frank: “Type 1 processing doesn’t require much conscious attention; Type 2 processing is slow, and we need to pay close attention.”

Question 14

Which of the following statements about factors affecting conditional reasoning is correct?
a. The length of a problem is more important in determining problem difficulty than is the abstractness of the problem.
b. People typically make more errors with abstract problems than with concrete problems.
c. People have more difficulty with sentences containing a single negative than they have with double-negative sentences.
d. If a problem contains the word not in the antecedent, people have difficulty; however, the word not in the consequent does not influence response speed.

Answer 14

b. People typically make more errors with abstract problems than with concrete problems.

Question 15

According to the discussion of logical reasoning,
a. conditional reasoning does not seem to require the use of working memory.
b. conditional reasoning is the one area in which negative information and positive information are equally easy to process.
c. people usually perform better on conditional reasoning problems if the statements are concrete, rather than abstract.
d. surprisingly, people actually have more trouble solving a concrete problem than an abstract problem.

Answer 15

c. people usually perform better on conditional reasoning problems if the statements are concrete, rather than abstract.

Question 16

When people draw a logical conclusion on the basis of whether it agrees with their everyday knowledge, they are demonstrating the
a. affirming-the-consequent error.
b. belief-bias effect.
c. small-sample fallacy.
d. Wason selection-task effect.

Answer 16

b. belief-bias effect.

Question 17

Studies on the belief-bias effect conclude that
a. in general, people select answers that are correct from a logical standpoint.
b. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic often operates inappropriately.
c. people typically have the biased belief that they ought to affirm the consequent.
d. people often select answers that are “common sense” rather than logically correct.

Answer 17

d. people often select answers that are “common sense” rather than logically correct.

Question 18

Research on the belief-bias effect shows that
a. it is especially likely to operate for experts.
b. people who earn high scores on a test of flexible thinking are especially likely to demonstrate the belief-bias effect.
c. familiar statements often lead people to use “common sense” rather than logical reasoning.
d. it emphasizes how people exaggerate their bottom-up processing.

Answer 18

c. familiar statements often lead people to use “common sense” rather than logical reasoning.

Question 19

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the belief-bias effect?
a. Tabitha: “The belief-bias effect means that novices are not as accurate as experts when solving reasoning problems.”
b. Pilar: “The belief-bias effect demonstrates that top-down processes are active when we use deductive reasoning.”
c. Joell: “Flexible thinkers are especially likely to make mistakes due to the belief-bias effect.”
d. Abilash: “The belief-bias effect operates for syllogisms, but not for conditional reasoning problems.”

Answer 19

b. Pilar: “The belief-bias effect demonstrates that top-down processes are active when we use deductive reasoning.

Question 20

According to the discussion in Chapter 12, the belief-bias effect
a. is an example of overreliance on bottom-up processing.
b. is likely to operate for people who have difficulty thinking flexibly.
c. reveals that people provide irrational answers on logical reasoning tasks.
d. arises from the general human tendency to answer “true,” rather than “false.”

Answer 20

b. is likely to operate for people who have difficulty thinking flexibly.

Question 21

Which of the following students’ statements best summarizes the research on the belief-bias effect?
a. Petra: “The belief-bias effect shows us how top-down processing influences logical reasoning; we should emphasize the actual information in the reasoning problem.”
b. Chris: “The belief-bias effect illustrates how people systematically keep trying to confirm a hypothesis, rather than trying to disconfirm it.”
c. Josh: “According to the belief-bias effect, people systematically prefer a conclusion that is stated in the positive form, rather than a conclusion that uses the word not.”
d. Cynthia: “The belief-bias effect shows us that people draw conclusions in logical reasoning on the basis of how frequently their prior beliefs come to mind.”

Answer 21

a. Petra: “The belief-bias effect shows us how top-down processing influences logical reasoning; we should emphasize the actual information in the reasoning problem.”

Question 22

According to the research on the confirmation bias,
a. people would rather focus on the antecedent than on the consequent.
b. people would rather think in terms of what is not true than in terms of what is true.
c. people would rather confirm a hypothesis than disprove it.
d. people would rather deny the consequent than affirm the antecedent.

Answer 22

c. people would rather confirm a hypothesis than disprove it.

Question 23

According to the discussion of the confirmation bias in deductive reasoning,
a. the confirmation bias slightly increases the accuracy of answers for novices.
b. the confirmation bias typically occurs when people rely too strongly on the crystal-ball technique.
c. the confirmation bias means that people prefer to demonstrate that a hypothesis is true, rather than to demonstrate that it is false.
d. typically only about 10% of college students tend to show the confirmation bias.

Answer 23

c. the confirmation bias means that people prefer to demonstrate that a hypothesis is true, rather than to demonstrate that it is false.

Question 24

Your text discussed a classic study in which people were asked which cards they would need to turn over in order to find out whether a rule about the letters and numbers on the cards was true or false. What did the study show?
a. People rely too heavily on denying the consequent.
b. People have difficulty understanding double negatives.
c. People typically avoid trying to disproving their hypotheses.
d. People overuse bottom-up processing.

Answer 24

c. People typically avoid trying to disproving their hypotheses.

Question 25

Cynthia has developed an informal hypothesis: "If a student is a psychology major, then that student favors gun control." She questions 20 psychology majors and all 20 do favor gun control. However, she does not pursue additional information. Specifically, she does not seek out people who oppose gun control to determine whether they are psychology majors. From the perspective of deductive reasoning, Cynthia has a. demonstrated confirmation bias. b. relied too heavily on the belief-bias effect. c. relied too heavily on counterexamples. d. overused the availability heuristic.

Answer 25

a. demonstrated confirmation bias.

Question 26

According to the research on the classic "selection task" (involving the cards that contain a letter and a number), a. accuracy often depends on factors such as the concreteness and familiarity of the problem. b. performance is better when people use top-down processing. c. surprisingly, people perform better when the task is abstract than when it is concrete. d. people prefer to use syllogisms, rather than conditional reasoning.

Answer 26

a. accuracy often depends on factors such as the concreteness and familiarity of the problem.

Question 27

On the classic selection task in conditional reasoning, people work on the problem, "If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side." Research on variations of this task indicates that a. people consistently seek out negative information rather than positive information. b. the problem is easier to solve if it describes something concrete, such as drinking age. c. this is one of the few tasks that people can solve more accurately in their heads than when the problem is represented with concrete objects. d. people are systematically influenced by the representativeness heuristic.

Answer 27

b. the problem is easier to solve if it describes something concrete, such as drinking age.

Question 28

The research on logical reasoning shows that the confirmation bias is especially likely to operate when the participants a. are working on an ecologically valid task, rather than a task in the psychology laboratory. b. use a diagram to solve the problem, rather than solving it "in their heads." c. are working on a task that focuses on arbitrary stimuli, rather than on human interactions. d. rely too heavily on bottom-up processes.

Answer 28

c. are working on a task that focuses on arbitrary stimuli, rather than on human interactions.

Question 29

Suppose that Joseph Brown is a U.S. diplomat who works in Country X, and he is trying to assess whether Country X poses a threat to the United States. The diplomat gathers evidence that Country X poses a threat, but he does not try to gather evidence that Country X does not pose a threat. This error is called a. the failure to transfer knowledge to a new task. b. the belief-bias effect. c. the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic. d. the confirmation bias.

Answer 29

d. the confirmation bias.

Question 30

Theme 2 argues that people are usually fairly accurate on cognitive tasks. How does this theme apply to deductive reasoning tasks? a. People are not very accurate on everyday deductive-reasoning tasks, so the theme doesn't apply here. b. The reasoning tasks we encounter in our daily lives are generally more concrete, so we are more likely to be accurate. c. People typically change these reasoning tasks into decision-making tasks, which are easier to solve quickly and accurately. d. People really are quite accurate on reasoning tasks, even when these tasks are abstract.

Answer 30

b. The reasoning tasks we encounter in our daily lives are generally more concrete, so we are more likely to be accurate.

Question 31

An important difference between reasoning and decision making is that in reasoning, a. we have well-established rules for arriving at conclusions. b. the premises are more likely to be ambiguous. c. the problem has greater ecological validity. d. we are not as likely to know whether our conclusions are correct.

Answer 31

a. we have well-established rules for arriving at conclusions.

Question 32

An important difference between reasoning and decision making is that a. reasoning tasks are more likely to use established rules to reach a conclusion. b. reasoning tasks are more likely to generate ecologically valid research. c. decision-making tasks are more likely to emphasize abstract premises. d. decision-making tasks are more likely to include all the necessary information.

Answer 32

a. reasoning tasks are more likely to use established rules to reach a conclusion.

Question 33

Heuristics in decision making a. may become a liability when they are applied inappropriately. b. always lead us to the correct decision. c. are mathematical formulas that precisely predict how people will perform on decision-making tasks. d. are helpful in decision-making situations, but people rarely apply them.

Answer 33

a. may become a liability when they are applied inappropriately.

Question 34

Which of the following students' statements provides the best overview of the research on decision making? a. Samantha: "People consistently make correct decisions based on the information they are given; problems arise when some crucial information is missing."" b. Nayan: "People's use of heuristics in decision making is usually adaptive, unless the heuristics are applied inappropriately."" c. Arthur: ""People consistently make incorrect decisions, unless the material is extremely concrete."" d. Shirley: "The most common kinds of decision-making errors involve belief-bias errors; otherwise, decision making is reasonably accurate."

Answer 34

b. Nayan: "People's use of heuristics in decision making is usually adaptive, unless the heuristics are applied inappropriately.""

Question 35

Suppose that Oksana is driving in a car to a friend's house. As she pulls into the friend's driveway, she sees that the odometer shows the number 2222.2 miles. She says to herself, "This number is weird...something really unusual is going to happen today when I am with my friend." This reaction would be an example of a. the consistency bias. b. the law of large numbers. c. the representativeness heuristic. d. the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic.

Answer 35

c. the representativeness heuristic.

Question 36

A family has three children, all of whom are boys. Everyone predicts that their next child will be a girl. Which heuristic does this demonstrate? a. Representativeness b. Availability c. Anchoring and adjustment d. Denying the consequent

Answer 36

a. Representativeness

Question 37

Suppose that you are assigning eight college students to two committees. By chance, one committee has four students from the social sciences, and the other has four students from the humanities. If people protest that this arrangement does not seem to be random, they are following a. the confirmation bias. b. the base-rate fallacy. c. the availability heuristic. d. the representativeness heuristic.

Answer 37

d. the representativeness heuristic.

Question 38

According to the discussion of representativeness, a. we believe that random-looking outcomes are more likely than orderly-looking outcomes. b. we take sample size into account when we make decisions. c. we take base rates into account when we make decisions. d. we are underconfident when we make decisions in a laboratory setting.

Answer 38

a. we believe that random-looking outcomes are more likely than orderly-looking outcomes.

Question 39

According to the discussion of sample size and representativeness, a. a small sample is more reliable than a large sample. b. when a sample is large, people trust the results more than they should. c. people tend to pay too much attention to the base rate. d. people frequently commit the small-sample fallacy.

Answer 39

d. people frequently commit the small-sample fallacy.

Question 40

One reason that decision makers often use the representativeness heuristic inappropriately is that a. they pay too much attention to the base rate. b. they do not pay enough attention to sample size. c. their decisions are influenced too greatly by a large sample size. d. they estimate frequency in terms of how easily they can think of examples that have a particular characteristic.

Answer 40

b. they do not pay enough attention to sample size.

Question 41

A coin has been tossed six times, and has landed on "heads" five out of the six times. Haley comments that the coin must not be a fair coin, but Zhanna says that this conclusion is unwarranted. Haley has fallen victim to the a. small-sample fallacy. b. base rate fallacy. c. anchoring and adjustment heuristic. d. false algorithm.

Answer 41

a. small-sample fallacy.

Question 42

According to the discussion of the representativeness heuristic in Chapter 12, people often commit the small-sample fallacy in social situations. An example of this point is that a. people may form a stereotype, based on only a few members of a particular ethnic group. b. people frequently try to confirm their current hypothesis. c. people judge others in terms of personal characteristics that are easy to remember. d. people judge the conjunction of two events to be more likely than just one of those events.

Answer 42

a. people may form a stereotype, based on only a few members of a particular ethnic group.

Question 43

You decide that a bearded professor wearing a rumpled sports coat is a member of the art faculty, rather than the business school faculty (which actually has more members) because he looks like an artist. What judgment error have you committed? a. You relied too heavily on the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. b. You should not have trusted your hindsight so completely. c. You should have been more aware of the law of large numbers. d. You did not pay enough attention to the base rate.

Answer 43

d. You did not pay enough attention to the base rate.

Question 44

When people commit the base-rate fallacy, they often a. rely too heavily on the availability heuristic. b. believe that the conjunction of two events is more likely than either event by itself. c. pay too little attention to information about relative frequency. d. are especially likely to demonstrate the hindsight bias.

Answer 44

c. pay too little attention to information about relative frequency.

Question 45

Suppose that you see a male student on your campus who is wearing a suit and a tie. You conclude, "He must be a business major; he couldn't be a psychology major." However, your college has twice as many psychology majors as business majors. Your decision is apparently guided by a. confirmation bias. b. the representativeness heuristic. c. my-side bias. d. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic.

Answer 45

b. the representativeness heuristic.

Question 46

Suppose that a doctor decides that a patient has a cold, rather than a much rarer disease, Disease X. She decides the disease is a cold, even though one symptom is fairly typical of Disease X and fairly atypical of a cold. This doctor is a. paying attention to the base rate of the diseases. b. showing the confirmation bias. c. demonstrating the small-sample fallacy. d. combining the availability heuristic with the representativeness heuristic.

Answer 46

a. paying attention to the base rate of the diseases.

Question 47

Research on the base rate in connection with the representativeness heuristic has demonstrated that a. people pay too much attention to the base rate in making probability judgments. b. people often reach the correct decision when the question is worded differently. c. training sessions are generally unsuccessful at getting students to use base-rate information appropriately. d. the conjunction fallacy explains why people pay so little attention to the base rate.

Answer 47

b. people often reach the correct decision when the question is worded differently.

Question 48

Why is the concept of base rate important in decisions that involve the representativeness heuristic? a. People usually don't pay enough attention to base rate when making these decisions. b. People are so aware of information about base rate that they typically make accurate decisions. c. People rarely make the small-sample fallacy when making these decisions. d. When people have a background in statistics, they are much more likely to make correct decisions on tasks involving the representativeness heuristic.

Answer 48

a. People usually don't pay enough attention to base rate when making these decisions.

Question 49

Suppose that you hear about a friend who graduated from your college in performing arts. In addition, suppose that you judge that she is more likely to be selling insurance and active in community theater than she is to be selling insurance. You have committed a. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. b. the crystal-ball technique. c. the belief-bias effect. d. the conjunction fallacy.

Answer 49

d. the conjunction fallacy.

Question 50

Suppose that a friend is wondering what ever happened to a classmate named Bob who attended your high school and was on the wrestling team. You say that Bob is now a banker. Your friend says, "Well, Bob is likely to be a banker who is still interested in sports, rather than just a plain banker." Your friend has just demonstrated a. the availability heuristic. b. the conjunction fallacy. c. an illusory correlation. d. the confirmation bias.

Answer 50

b. the conjunction fallacy.

Question 51

Research on the conjunction fallacy shows that a. people pay more attention to statistical probability than to heuristic strategies. b. people pay too much attention to sample size. c. people sometimes believe that the probability of a combination of two attributes is statistically more likely than the probability of one of those attributes. d. people simply misunderstand the instructions because the material is so vivid; when the task is explained, the conjunction fallacy disappears.

Answer 51

c. people sometimes believe that the probability of a combination of two attributes is statistically more likely than the probability of one of those attributes.

Question 52

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the representativeness heuristic? a. Ko-Eun: "We use the representativeness heuristic when we judge frequency in terms of how easily we can think of examples of a category." b. Tianna: "The representativeness heuristic demonstrates that we initially make a guess, and then we make modest adjustments to that initial guess." c. Brandon: "When using the representativeness heuristic, we overemphasize the base rate and don't pay enough attention to the availability heuristic." d. Celia: "The representativeness heuristic typically works well, although we tend to ignore other relevant information that we should consider."

Answer 52

d. Celia: "The representativeness heuristic typically works well, although we tend to ignore other relevant information that we should consider."

Question 53

When we make judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind, we are using a. the availability heuristic. b. the representativeness heuristic. c. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. d. the conjunction fallacy.

Answer 53

a. the availability heuristic.

Question 54

You are trying to decide whether it will rain tomorrow, based on how many rainy days you remember from the last week. Which heuristic are you using? a. Availability b. Crystal-ball technique c. Anchoring and adjustment d. Representativeness

Answer 54

a. Availability

Question 55

Suppose that you are trying to decide whether to buy tomatoes or cucumbers in a grocery store. You think about the wide variety of recipes that use tomatoes, compared with only a few recipes that use cucumbers. You are using a. the representativeness heuristic. b. the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic. c. the availability heuristic. d. the confirmation bias.

Answer 55

c. the availability heuristic.

Question 56

Suppose that someone asks you to name the most popular television situation comedies, and you respond with the names of two shows that you regularly watch. This would be an example of a. anchoring and adjustment. b. an illusory correlation. c. representativeness. d. availability.

Answer 56

d. availability.

Question 57

Barnett believes that "most people" share his political views. However, Barnett is basing his judgment on the views of his close friends, with whom he discusses politics most frequently, and with whom he shares core values and attitudes. Barnett is relying on the _____ heuristic. a. representativeness b. availability c. anchoring and adjustment d. conjunction

Answer 57

b. availability

Question 58

According to the discussion of the availability heuristic, a. this heuristic is consistently more accurate than the representativeness heuristic. b. we use this heuristic when we try to estimate probability by thinking of relevant examples. c. this heuristic emphasizes that we ignore the conjunction fallacy. d. this heuristic explains why we typically provide confidence intervals that are too narrow.

Answer 58

b. we use this heuristic when we try to estimate probability by thinking of relevant examples.

Question 59

In contrast to the representativeness heuristic, the availability heuristic a. begins with a specific situation, and you must judge its likelihood. b. begins with a set of assumptions. c. involves recalling some examples of a general category. d. is related to hindsight bias.

Answer 59

c. involves recalling some examples of a general category.

Question 60

Psychologists have published an article which shows that many U.S. residents avoided flying in airplanes after the 2001 terrorist attacks. In fact, for several months afterwards, many people decided to drive, rather than fly. This phenomenon can best be explained by a. the influence of recency on availability. b. the conjunction fallacy. c. the illusory correlation effect. d. too much emphasis on the likelihood ratio.

Answer 60

a. the influence of recency on availability.

Question 61

Dr. Anna Smith is a clinical psychologist. She just heard about someone who had a bad reaction to a medication. She knows that this medication has worked well with many of her clients who have experienced depression during the last few months. With respect to decision-making heuristics, she should be concerned that her future decisions about this medication might be influenced by a. the conjunction fallacy. b. the relationship between illusory correlations and the representativeness heuristic. c. anchoring and adjustment. d. the tendency for recency to influence availability.

Answer 61

d. the tendency for recency to influence availability.

Question 62

Suppose that you are trying to decide whether to take a course from Professor Jones or Professor Smith. Your friends have made many positive comments about both professors. You decide to take a course with Professor Jones, because today you heard more praise about Professor Jones. You are using a. the availability heuristic. b. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. c. the representativeness heuristic. d. the recognition heuristic.

Answer 62

a. the availability heuristic.

Question 63

People who often watch soap operas are likely to believe that amnesia, extramarital affairs, and mysterious disappearances occur more often than they actually occur in real life. A likely explanation for this finding is that a. familiarity influences availability. b. these events are actually underreported by the media. c. frightening events are more likely to be handled by deductive reasoning. d. they are overusing the crystal-ball technique.

Answer 63

a. familiarity influences availability.

Question 64

What is one of the difficulties with the availability heuristic? a. It seldom leads to a correct decision in everyday life. b. Frequency estimation may be distorted by the familiarity of the examples. c. People rely too much on adjustments and not enough on the anchor. d. People rely too much on abstract evidence, rather than concrete evidence.

Answer 64

b. Frequency estimation may be distorted by the familiarity of the examples.

Question 65

Research on the availability heuristic shows that a. when medical journals contain many articles about a particular disease, physicians are likely to believe that it is easily curable. b. estimates for a country's population are distorted by the frequency with which the country is mentioned in the news. c. more recent events tend to be given relatively little weight in making frequency estimates, compared with events that occurred long ago. d. people almost always select answers that are consistent with deductive reasoning.

Answer 65

b. estimates for a country's population are distorted by the frequency with which the country is mentioned in the news.

Question 66

Suppose that a quiz show host asks a contestant which city in France has the greater population, Paris or Nantes. The contestant immediately responds, "Paris." According to the discussion of decision making, a. this is an example of an illusory correlation. b. people usually have difficulty in answering questions that use the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. c. this is a variant of the representativeness heuristic. d. this is an example of the recognition heuristic.

Answer 66

d. this is an example of the recognition heuristic.

Question 67

Which of the following heuristics is most likely to produce a correct decision? a. The availability heuristic b. The representativeness heuristic c. The recognition heuristic d. The anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Answer 67

c. The recognition heuristic

Question 68

Chapter 12, on reasoning and decision making, emphasizes that we frequently endorse our current hypotheses and thoughts, rather than questioning them. Which of the following topics is least likely to show an overemphasis on our current hypotheses? a. The confirmation bias b. Illusory correlations c. The recognition heuristic d. The anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Answer 68

c. The recognition heuristic

Question 69

We often tend to see psychological patterns in the pictures that people draw. For example, we might think that suspicious people would tend to draw exaggerated eyes. What error in judgment does this represent? a. The confirmation bias b. Illusory correlation c. Law of small numbers d. The my-side bias

Answer 69

b. Illusory correlation

Question 70

According to the social cognition approach to stereotypes, we form stereotypes primarily a. because of our normal cognitive processes. b. because we dislike certain categories of people. c. because we feel guilty, and we want to blame other categories of people for some problems. d. because of factors that evolutionary psychology can explain.

Answer 70

a. because of our normal cognitive processes.

Question 71

How could the illusory correlation effect produce a stereotype? a. People use the prospect theory to predict the likelihood of the stereotype. b. People use the representativeness heuristic to determine whether a particular stereotype seems likely for a particular group of people. c. People pay too much attention to a group of people who have a particular combination of characteristics, and they ignore the other three possible combinations of characteristics. d. People overemphasize the estimate provided by anchor, and they pay too little attention to bottom-up processing.

Answer 71

c. People pay too much attention to a group of people who have a particular combination of characteristics, and they ignore the other three possible combinations of characteristics.

Question 72

A likely explanation for the illusory correlation effect is that a. people choose a stereotype as an anchor, and they make only small adjustments based on that anchor. b. people believe that correlations are illusions, somewhat similar to optical illusions. c. we pay too much attention to just one cell in the matrix, rather than the three other possible combinations of variables. d. we select the least available cell as an anchor, and then we make adjustments away from that anchor.

Answer 72

c. we pay too much attention to just one cell in the matrix, rather than the three other possible combinations of variables.

Question 73

Which of the following students has the best explanation for illusory correlations? a. Tim: "Illusory correlations arise when people focus their attention on only one set of characteristics, and they do not consider the other sets of characteristics." b. Joanne: "Illusory correlations are based on the inappropriate use of confidence intervals." c. Sophie: "Illusory correlations resemble the conjunction fallacy, in which we believe that two psychological characteristics or categories are related to each other." d. Ingo: "Actually, a recent meta-analysis showed that—ironically—illusory correlations are illusory."

Answer 73

a. Tim: "Illusory correlations arise when people focus their attention on only one set of characteristics, and they do not consider the other sets of characteristics."

Question 74

A friend tells you that drama majors tend to be extremely disorganized. However, when you actually make a tally of 10 friends who are drama majors and 20 friends who are not, you find no relationship. Your friend's error was most likely to be an example of a. the hindsight bias. b. an illusory correlation. c. the framing effect. d. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic.

Answer 74

b. an illusory correlation.

Question 75

Which of the following students provides the most accurate perspective on the availability heuristic? a. Barbara: "The availability heuristic is actually very accurate, and it almost always leads us to the correct decision." b. Harley: "The availability heuristic is generally accurate, but recency and familiarity can distort our decisions." c. Angela: "The availability heuristic is generally accurate, except that we should be cautious about the recognition heuristic, which is not very accurate." d. Magda: "Unfortunately, the availability heuristic is the least accurate of the three major heuristics, especially because of the hindsight bias."

Answer 75

b. Harley: "The availability heuristic is generally accurate, but recency and familiarity can distort our decisions."

Question 76

A professor asks students to guess what percent of people in homeless shelters are parents and children. Before you can consider your answer, another student shouts out "about 10%." Your answer may be either higher or lower than it would be otherwise because of a. the belief-bias effect. b. the confirmation bias. c. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. d. the hindsight bias.

Answer 76

c. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic.

Question 77

You estimate the number of bottles of pop you'll need for the 4th of July picnic, based on the Christmas party consumption, but taking into account the fact that the weather will be warmer. Which heuristic does this example illustrate? a. Availability b. Base rate fallacy c. Anchoring and adjustment d. Representativeness

Answer 77

d. Representativeness

Question 78

A physician is trying to convince a man that he must give up smoking. The man initially believes that the probability of lung cancer is increased by only 10% if he smokes. Why are decision-making heuristics relevant to this situation? a. The situation will encourage the conjunction fallacy. b. The probability of an illusory correlation is increased. c. Familiarity distorts availability judgments. d. The man's estimate will be influenced by a low anchor

Answer 78

d. The man's estimate will be influenced by a low anchor

Question 79

When people estimate confidence intervals, they typically a. provide estimates that are too wide. b. rely too heavily on the representativeness heuristic. c. are not sufficiently confident about their decisions. d. provide estimates that are too narrow.

Answer 79

d. provide estimates that are too narrow.

Question 80

Anchoring and adjustment is relevant when we estimate confidence intervals because a. we are overconfident about the adjustment process. b. we rely too heavily on the anchor. c. we make adjustments in our estimates that are larger than they should be. d. we should apply the adjustment prior to the anchor.

Answer 80

b. we rely too heavily on the anchor.

Question 81

Suppose that a student named John is asked to judge how many students are enrolled in his introductory biology class. He replies, "about 100....well, maybe between about 90 and 110." Based on the discussion of confidence intervals, you predict that a. John's estimate probably relies too heavily on the ease with which examples come to mind. b. John is likely to be heavily influenced by the confirmation bias. c. John probably relied too heavily on the initial anchor of 100 students. d. John probably would have been wiser to use the representativeness heuristic to estimate the confidence intervals.

Answer 81

c. John probably relied too heavily on the initial anchor of 100 students.

Question 82

Imagine that your professor is discussing the prevalence of psychological disorders in the general population, and he says, "A study conducted in 2012 estimated that about 11% of the population has a psychological disorder at any one time." If you were to estimate a confidence interval, based on this number—11%—you would be most likely a. to use the confirmation bias inappropriately. b. to estimate this range by using the availability heuristic, which would be biased because of recent examples. c. to rely too heavily on an anchor, and not make large enough adjustments to that anchor. d. to use decision frames inappropriately.

Answer 82

c. to rely too heavily on an anchor, and not make large enough adjustments to that anchor.

Question 83

Because of a recently passed law, in Oregon, everyone who gets a driver's license or state identification card is automatically registered to vote; they must choose to "opt out" if they do not wish to be registered. In most states, a person must take steps to register to vote. In the future, if voting statistics show that significantly more Oregonians than other U.S. citizens are registered to vote, we might say that this is a good example of the _______ heuristic in action. a. representativeness b. availability c. anchoring and adjustment d. default

Answer 83

d. default

Question 84

Researchers such as Gerd Gigerenzer argue that people create a wide variety of heuristics that generally help them make adaptive decisions in the real world—a point of view referred to as a. anchoring and adjustment. b. irrational decision making. c. framing. d. ecological rationality.

Answer 84

d. ecological rationality.

Question 85

The research on the framing effect suggests that a. decisions are overly influenced by the availability heuristic. b. the hindsight bias is more influential than the representativeness heuristic. c. we tend to be overconfident about the accuracy of our decisions. d. we are influenced by the wording of a question and the background information.

Answer 85

d. we are influenced by the wording of a question and the background information.

Question 86

Suppose that you hear someone say, "I don't care how many days I am sick; I just care how many days I am well." Which of the following concepts from decision making would be most relevant to this statement? a. The framing effect b. The hindsight bias c. The my-side bias d. The conjunction fallacy

Answer 86

a. The framing effect

Question 87

According to the framing effect, a. under some circumstances, the framework of a question encourages too much reliance on the representativeness heuristic. b. when people make decisions, the deep structure—or frame—is more important than the surface structure. c. decision-makers show a clear-cut tendency to assume that the same frame holds true for all the decisions in a particular set. d. the way in which a question is asked has an important influence on people's decisions.

Answer 87

d. the way in which a question is asked has an important influence on people's decisions.

Question 88

If a researcher wants to conduct a study on the framing effect, which of the following would be the most likely topic for the study? a. "How do math undergraduates and math professors differ in their confidence about decisions?" b. "How long do people maintain their commitment to an unsatisfactory decision?" c. "Under what circumstances do people overestimate their ability to predict events that have already occurred?" d. "Should a product that costs $300 and is marked down to $200 be advertised as only $200 or $100 off?"

Answer 88

d. "Should a product that costs $300 and is marked down to $200 be advertised as only $200 or $100 off?"

Question 89

Suppose that a politician is drafting her position paper on the educational situation in her district. She is trying to decide whether she should say, "If we adopt Plan A, we estimate that 10% of our students will drop out of high school before graduating." Alternately, she might say, "If we adopt Plan A, we estimate that 90% of our students will graduate from high school." She would probably find that her audience responds differently to these two versions of her talk, because of a. the belief-bias effect. b. the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. c. the hindsight bias. d. the framing effect.

Answer 89

d. the framing effect.

Question 90

According to the research on prospect theory, a. people generally avoid risks. b. when the situation involves possible losses, people usually seek risks. c. most people can overcome the framing effect because they naturally focus on the risks involved. d. people consistently make decisions that are correct from a statistical point of view.

Answer 90

b. when the situation involves possible losses, people usually seek risks.

Question 91

Jeff is concerned that the framing effect may be influencing his decision to study abroad next semester. According to Chapter 12, an effective way to correct for the framing effect is to a. see whether he can come up with some representative counter-examples. b. apply the anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic to see whether the decision can be appropriately adjusted. c. consider how many positive and how many negative examples come readily to mind. d. consider how he would feel about not studying abroad next semester.

Answer 91

d. consider how he would feel about not studying abroad next semester.

Question 92

At midterm, a college determines that 300 of its students are at risk for suspension this semester. Its tutoring center argues that, with a series of targeted emails encouraging students to come in for help, it can promise to certainly save 100 of those students from suspension. However, an external firm approaches the college with an offer to start a new program, with a 1/3 chance of preventing all 300 students from being suspended (and a 2/3 chance of saving none of these students). Under which circumstances is the college most likely to hire the external firm? a. the tutoring center and the external firm emphasize the number of students to be "saved" in their presentations b. the tutoring center and the external firm emphasize the number of students who will be suspended under each of their programs c. the tutoring center emphasizes the potential number of students to be suspended, while the external firm emphasizes the potential number of students saved from suspension d. both the tutoring center and the external firm place equal emphasis on the students to be "saved" and the students who will be suspended under each approach

Answer 92

b. the tutoring center and the external firm emphasize the number of students who will be suspended under each of their programs

Question 93

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the research on overconfidence? a. Solange: "Overconfidence applies to many other cognitive tasks, in addition to decision making." b. Igor: "The research on overconfidence shows that participants are consistently overconfident, no matter what kind of questions they are asked." c. Steve: "Individual differences are surprisingly small in this area; both experts and novices show similar levels of overconfidence." d. Amber: "The overconfidence effect can be traced to illusory correlations."

Answer 93

a. Solange: "Overconfidence applies to many other cognitive tasks, in addition to decision making."

Question 94

According to the research on overconfidence, a. overconfidence can be easily demonstrated in the laboratory, but not in real-world situations. b. politicians—like other people—are frequently overconfident. c. overconfidence is limited to decision making; it does not seem to apply to other cognitive tasks. d. overconfidence seems to apply to about 40% of the population; about 30% are accurate, and the remaining 30% are underconfident.

Answer 94

b. politicians—like other people—are frequently overconfident.

Question 95

Suppose that you are working as an industrial/organizational psychologist for a company. You've determined that the employees tend to be too confident about sales decisions that later turn out to be unwise. Remembering what you learned in your cognitive psychology course, your wisest decision would be to a. use the crystal-ball technique. b. use the meta-analysis technique. c. emphasize that the employees should try to find more information that confirms their beliefs, rather than disconfirming those beliefs. d. emphasize that the employees need to review the principles of propositional calculus.

Answer 95

a. use the crystal-ball technique.

Question 96

Suppose you have a friend who is just beginning college, and she plans to go to school half-time. She estimates that she will earn her bachelor's degree in about 7 years, rather than 8 years. It is most likely that she a. is avoiding the use of the recognition heuristic. b. is using a syllogism inappropriately. c. is falling victim to the planning fallacy. d. should make better use of conditional reasoning.

Answer 96

c. is falling victim to the planning fallacy.

Question 97

According to the research on the reasons for overconfidence, a. people are aware that their knowledge is based on uncertain assumptions. b. people are typically conscientious about searching for examples to contradict a conclusion. c. people often have trouble recalling the alternate hypotheses. d. people are overly eager to think of situations in which some alternative hypotheses would be correct.

Answer 97

c. people often have trouble recalling the alternate hypotheses.

Question 98

Suppose that you are having a serious argument with a friend, and you are convinced that your own perspective is correct. According to the discussion in Chapter 12, this situation is an example of a. hindsight bias. b. my-side bias. c. the crystal-ball technique. d. the conjunction rule.

Answer 98

b. my-side bias.

Question 99

In the hindsight bias, a. people rely too much on an anchor, and they fail to make appropriate adjustments. b. the availability heuristic is more useful than the representativeness heuristic. c. people believe that their foresight is more accurate than their hindsight. d. people overestimate their accuracy for predicting past events.

Answer 99

d. people overestimate their accuracy for predicting past events.

Question 100

Suppose that you are watching television just after a Congressional election, and your favorite candidate has won—although the election was close. You say to a friend, "Well, I was really quite confident that he would win." This might be an example of a. a conjunction fallacy. b. the framing effect. c. the hindsight bias. d. the representativeness heuristic.

Answer 100

c. the hindsight bias.

Question 101

A group of fantasy football players are discussing the previous weekend's games, which included a season-ending injury to a top player. Kat is heard to say, "I knew that quarterback was going to get injured eventually. He can't get rid of the ball quickly enough, so he's always getting sacked." Kat is probably being influenced by a. the framing effect. b. the representativeness heuristic. c. the conjunction fallacy. d. hindsight bias.

Answer 101

d. hindsight bias.

Question 102

The decision theorists who favor the ecological-rationality perspective are most likely to argue that a. humans have an inborn predisposition to use decision-making heuristics. b. when humans are in a good mood, they are more accurate on decision-making tasks. c. when humans have received appropriate training, they make virtually no errors on decision-making tasks. d. humans typically make wise decisions in naturalistic situations.

Answer 102

d. humans typically make wise decisions in naturalistic situations.

Question 103

Chapter 12 notes that researchers such as Kahneman and Tversky are pessimistic about our decision-making skills, whereas researchers such as Gigerenzer are more optimistic. The optimists emphasize that a. the pessimists focused too much on real-life examples; in the laboratory, people are actually quite accurate. b. the major decision-making heuristics are actually highly accurate, and they almost always lead us to correct decisions, contrary to the theories advanced by the pessimists. c. the pessimists underestimate our decision-making accuracy because of factors such as choosing questions that contradict people's schemas. d. the pessimists have typically sampled groups of people living in the community; in contrast, college students make statistically appropriate decisions.

Answer 103

c. the pessimists underestimate our decision-making accuracy because of factors such as choosing questions that contradict people's schemas.

Question 104

Suppose that Kaitlin has a satisficing decision-making style, and she is shopping for a winter jacket. She would be most likely to a. examine as many jackets as possible, taking into consideration their price, color, style, and warmth. b. first select the two attributes that she considers most important—such as price and style—and focus on all jackets that meet these two criteria. c. find a jacket that is good enough to meet her standards, even if it is not ideal. d. create a list of pros and cons for the jackets that are acceptable, and choose the jacket on the basis of this list.

Answer 104

c. find a jacket that is good enough to meet her standards, even if it is not ideal.

Question 105

Schwartz and his colleagues examined the relationship between decision-making style and measures of depression. Their results showed that people with a maximizing decision-making style a. tended to be less depressed, probably because they were pleased with their high-quality decisions. b. tended to be less depressed, probably because they enjoyed the process of decision making. c. tended to be more depressed, probably because they experience regret that the items they did not select might be better. d. tended to be more depressed, probably because they spent so much time on the process of decision making.

Answer 105

c. tended to be more depressed, probably because they experience regret that the items they did not select might be better.

Question 106

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because a) the solution is immediately obvious. b) there is an obstacle between the present state and the goal state. c) the initial state is not clearly defined. d) the goal state is not clearly defined.

Answer 106

a) the solution is immediately obvious.

Question 107

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving a) reorganization or restructuring. b) multiple goal states. c) sensory operators. d) continuity and form.

Answer 107

a) reorganization or restructuring.

Question 108

Insight refers to a) prior learning facilitating problem solving. b) prior learning hindering problem solving. c) the tendency to respond in a certain manner, based on past experience. d) the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Answer 108

d) the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Question 109

The discussion of insight in problem solving pointed out that

Answer 109

gestalt psychologists emphasized the importance of insight in solving problems.

Question 110

In which of the following areas are expert problem-solvers and novice problem-solvers likely to be most similar?

Answer 110

General memory skills

Question 111

Psychologists favor the lifespan approach to development because a. it illustrates that the changes during late adulthood are even more dramatic than the changes during infancy. b. the research techniques are more valid than when other approaches are used. c. it demonstrates that the cognitive changes between infancy and old age are relatively minor. d. it emphasizes that people continue to develop throughout their lifetime.

Answer 111

d. it emphasizes that people continue to develop throughout their lifetime.

Question 112

One important reason that research on infant cognitive abilities is difficult to conduct is that a. infants do not have measurable memory skills until 6 months of age, so we cannot assess other cognitive abilities that depend on memory. b. infants under the age of 3 months are too young to participate in research. c. it's difficult to assess cognitive processes because of infants' limited motor and language skills. d. psychologists have typically concentrated on perceptual abilities, rather than cognitive abilities.

Answer 112

c. it's difficult to assess cognitive processes because of infants' limited motor and language skills.

Question 113

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves a) insight. b) algorithms. c) parity. d) search.

Answer 113

d) search.

Question 114

____identified people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution as a major obstacle to successful problem solving. a) Information processing psychologists b) Gestalt psychologists c) Psychophysicists d) The analogical problem solving approach

Answer 114

b) Gestalt psychologists

Question 115

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness? a) Using a pair of pliers as a paperweight b) Using a tire as a swing seat and as a football practice target c) Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice d) Using a wine bottle as a vase

Answer 115

c) Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

Question 116

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if a) fewer tacks are provided. b) pliers are also presented. c) the box is empty. d) the candle is already lit.

Answer 116

c) the box is empty.

Question 117

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from a) seeing more efficient solutions to the problem. b) being able to solve other problems at all. c) understanding why the procedure works successfully. d) discriminating between well- and ill-defined problems.

Answer 117

a) seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

Question 118

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the ____ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty. a) transitory b) goal c) intermediate d) initial

Answer 118

d) initial

Question 119

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as a) intermediate states. b) subgoals. c) operators. d) mental sets.

Answer 119

c) operators.

Question 120

The typical purpose of subgoals is to a) solve insight problems. b) move the solver directly from the initial state to the goal state. c) bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state. d) avoid the need to perform means-end analysis.

Answer 120

c) bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Question 121

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the ____ group had the fastest response time. a) blank b) color c) black and pink d) bread and butter

Answer 121

d) bread and butter

Question 122

The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine a) what information a person is attending to while solving a problem. b) which people can be considered more creative in ability to solve problems. c) how to develop computer programs that best mimic human problem solving. d) how a person's expertise increases his or her likelihood of solving a problem, relative to a beginner.

Answer 122

a) what information a person is attending to while solving a problem.

Question 123

In analogical problem solving, the ______ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the ______ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution. a) source; target b) target; source c) prototype; target d) exemplar; source

Answer 123

b) target; source

Question 124

The radiation problem can be solved using a) representation and restructuring. b) means-end analysis. c) warmth judgments. d) mental set.

Answer 124

a) representation and restructuring.

Question 125

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process? a) Likening the dangerous mines to the dangerous tumor b) Developing schemas for each individual problem c) Connecting the fortress with the tumor d) Generalizing from groups of soldiers to using many rays to solve the problem

Answer 125

c) Connecting the fortress with the tumor

Question 126

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving? a) Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection b) Mapping corresponding parts between the problems because the elements are difficult to identify c) Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution because of the difficulty in generalizing from one problem to another d) Solving the problem through reorganization because past experience can make it more difficult to reorganize a problem

Answer 126

a) Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection

Question 127

People are most successful at noticing an analogous relationship between problems if they focus on a) surface features. b) structural features. c) operators. d) mental sets.

Answer 127

b) structural features.

Question 128

Holyoak and Koh presented different versions of the light bulb problem to assist in solving the radiation problem. They found the ____ version to be more effective, because it had ____ features in common with the radiation problem. a) insufficient-intensity; surface b) insufficient-intensity; structural c) fragile-glass; surface d) fragile-glass; structural

Answer 128

d) fragile-glass; structural

Question 129

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between a) experts and novices. b) laboratory and real-world settings. c) experimental groups and control groups. d) well- and ill-defined problems.

Answer 129

b) laboratory and real-world settings.

Question 130

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems. a) analogies b) insight c) flexibility d) subgoals

Answer 130

a) analogies

Question 131

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems? a) Experts possess more knowledge about their fields than novices. b) Experts often organize problems differently than novices, based on principles. c) Experts often spend more time analyzing problems than novices. d) Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Answer 131

d) Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field

Question 132

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that ____ may be more important than ____ in creative thinking. a) experience; structure b) structure; experience c) flexibility; experience d) experience; flexibility

Answer 132

c) flexibility; experience

Question 133

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents a) convergent thinking. b) divergent thinking. c) insight. d) hierarchical organization.

Answer 133

b) divergent thinking.

Question 134

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the ____ approach developed by Ronald Finke. a) convergent thinking b) creative cognition c) divergent thinking d) the means-end analysis

Answer 134

c) divergent thinking

Question 135

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the a) object parts. b) novel objects before a function was described. c) practical objects within the category. d) inventions rated high in both practicality and originality.

Answer 135

b) novel objects before a function was described.

Question 136

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they a) made the objects themselves. b) had received training in creative thinking. c) had been preselected as "creative" individuals. d) were told they were expected to be creative.

Answer 136

a) made the objects themselves.

Question 137

Your textbook suggests that a trait that appears to be common to both mental illness and creativity is ____ . a) low pressure tolerance b) high levels of neuroticism c) low capacity for divergent thinking d) latent inhibition

Answer 137

d) latent inhibition

Question 138

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves ____ reasoning. a) deductive b) syllogistic c) inductive d) connective

Answer 138

c) inductive

Question 139

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using a) an omission bias. b) inductive reasoning. c) the conjunction rule. d) the similarity-coverage model.

Answer 139

b) inductive reasoning.

Question 140

Wally and Sharon are out on a date. When Sharon asks Wally where they should go for dinner, Wally says "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n) a) availability heuristic. b) confirmation bias. c) conjunction rule. d) permission schema.

Answer 140

a) availability heuristic.

Question 141

Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using a) the law of large numbers. b) an atmosphere effect. c) an illusory correlation. d) the falsification principle.

Answer 141

c) an illusory correlation.

Question 142

Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT a) the availability heuristic. b) illusory correlations. c) selective attention. d) the falsification principle.

Answer 142

d) the falsification principle.

Question 143

One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a ____ chance that Sarah is a science major. a) 40% b) 50% c) 60% d) 100%

Answer 143

a) 40%

Question 144

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti- nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable? a) Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman. b) Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman and active in the feminist movement. c) Lydia is a state governor. d) Lydia is a state governor and active in the feminist movement.

Answer 144

a) Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman.

Question 145

Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says "George Burns smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his "George Burns" argument involves a) framing. b) the conjunction rule. c) sample size. d) none of these

Answer 145

c) sample size.

Question 146

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning a) confirmation bias. b) utility. c) the falsification principle. d) the representativeness heuristic.

Answer 146

d) the representativeness heuristic.

Question 147

Your textbook describes several methodological problems that arise when conducting research with elderly individuals. These problems included the fact that a. elderly people tend to be better educated than younger people. b. elderly people are typically less anxious than younger people. c. elderly people typically have more health problems than younger people. d. irrelevant variables are often too carefully controlled.

Answer 147

c. elderly people typically have more health problems than younger people.

Question 148

Suppose researchers test 100 college students, whose ages range from 18 to 23. They also test 100 people at a nearby community center for older adults, whose ages range from 70 to 75. The participants are instructed to read a series of short essays and answer questions on them. The average score is 72% correct for the elderly people and 85% correct for the college students. Which of the following four conclusions would you be most likely to choose? a. You would conclude that the younger people have better memory than the older people. b. You would conclude that the differences in the average scores can be traced to differences in the working memory of the two groups. c. You would recommend that the same study should be repeated with larger groups of participants. d. You would recommend that the study should be repeated, matching the two groups in terms of variables such as education and health.

Answer 148

d. You would recommend that the study should be repeated, matching the two groups in terms of variables such as education and health.

Question 149

According to the introductory information about cognitive skills in elderly people, a. in general, elderly adults are more confident about their skills than young adults are. b. other variables—such as health or education—can explain part of the age-related cognitive differences. c. when researchers eliminate several other relevant variables, elderly adults and young adults have almost identical cognitive abilities. d. in general, elderly adults and young adults have had similar recent experience with memorizing material.

Answer 149

b. other variables—such as health or education—can explain part of the age-related cognitive differences.

Question 150

According to the discussion of infants' memory, a there is no evidence of long-term memory until infants are about 6 months of age. b. the major problem in studying infants' memory is that babies cannot accurately see visual stimuli until they are 3-4 months old. c. it is so difficult to measure infants' memory that we do not know much about the memory skills of young infants. d in the infants' brain, some parts concerned with memory are not fully developed.

Answer 150

d. in the infants' brain, some parts concerned with memory are not fully developed.

Question 151

Studies on infants' recognition of their mothers show that a. infants recognize their mother's face for the first time when they are about 4 months old. b. infants can recognize their mother's face and voice before they reach the age of 1 week. c. it is so difficult to test infants' memory that we cannot test infants' face or voice recognition until they are about 2 months of age. d. infants' perceptual skills are so limited that they cannot recognize either the face or the voice of their mother until 6 months of age.

Answer 151

b. infants can recognize their mother's face and voice before they reach the age of 1 week.

Question 152

According to research on infants' recognition of their mothers, a. infants can recognize that mothers look different from strangers, beginning at less than 1 week of age. b. because infants' vision is so primitive, they cannot visually recognize their mothers until they are about 6 weeks of age. c. prior to birth, the walls of the uterus prevent the sound of the mother's voice from reaching the fetus. d. infants do not seem to be able to distinguish their mother's voices from those of strangers until they are 4 weeks of age.

Answer 152

a. infants can recognize that mothers look different from strangers, beginning at less than 1 week of age.

Question 153

Chapter 13 discussed research conducted in China on infants' ability to recognize their mother's voice 1 or 2 weeks before the infants were born. In one condition, infants heard their mother's voice reading a poem. This research was appropriately conducted because, in the second condition, infants heard a. their mother reading the same poem at a different time. b. their mother reading a different poem. c. another woman reading a different poem. d. another woman reading the same poem.

Answer 153

d. another woman reading the same poem.

Question 154

When Carolyn Rovee-Collier and other researchers use the conjugate reinforcement technique, a. the babies show habituation to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly. b. the babies suck at a higher rate to produce the voice of their mother than the voice of a stranger. c. the babies kick in order to produce movement of a mobile. d. the babies receive a "peekaboo" reinforcement when they recognize a familiar object.

Answer 154

c. the babies kick in order to produce movement of a mobile.

Question 155

When Carolyn Rovee-Collier and other researchers use the conjugate reinforcement technique, a baby demonstrates memory by a. showing dishabituation to a familiar stimulus, measured in terms of sucking responses. b. staring longer at a mobile that has never been seen before. c. smiling more at a familiar stimulus than at an unfamiliar stimulus. d. kicking his or her leg when the mobile is presented.

Answer 155

d. kicking his or her leg when the mobile is presented.

Question 156

Chapter 13 discussed Rovee-Collier's conjugate reinforcement technique, and its usefulness in testing infant memory. The basic logic behind this technique is that a. infants will prefer to look at complex objects, rather than simple objects. b. infants will respond to their parents by gazing at them longer than they gaze at strangers. c. infants will remember—after a delay—how to kick their leg in order to produce movement in a mobile. d. infants can be classically conditioned to show a startle reflex to an unfamiliar sound.

Answer 156

c. infants will remember—after a delay—how to kick their leg in order to produce movement in a mobile.

Question 157

According to research about the importance of context in infant memory, a. context does not seem to have an important influence on infants' memory. b. when infants are younger than 6 months, context has no influence on infants' memory; however, context is important for infants who are older than 6 months. c. infants actually show enhanced memory if the researchers test memory in a different context. d. context effects are even stronger for infants than for adults.

Answer 157

d. context effects are even stronger for infants than for adults.

Question 158

Researchers have used Carolyn Rovee-Collier's conjugate reinforcement technique to assess memory during infancy. According to this research, a. infants show no measurable signs of memory until they are at least 4 months of age. b. if you change the environmental context in which the mobile is presented, infants show much lower retention. c. context apparently does not influence infants' memory. d. unlike adults, infants show no evidence of the spacing effect.

Answer 158

b. if you change the environmental context in which the mobile is presented, infants show much lower retention.

Question 159

Carolyn Rovee-Collier and her colleagues conducted research to see whether infants demonstrate the spacing effect. The results of this research showed that a. infants and adults responded similarly; both remembered better when their practice was distributed over time. b. infants and adults responded similarly; both remembered better when they learned the material in one concentrated session. c. infants remembered better when practice was distributed; adults remembered better when they learned the material in one concentrated session. d. infants remembered better when they learned the material in one concentrated session; adults remembered better when practice was distributed.

Answer 159

a. infants and adults responded similarly; both remembered better when their practice was distributed over time.

Question 160

According to research on infant memory, if you want an infant to remember the sound of your voice, you should a. speak in a soft voice for a long duration, such as an hour or more. b. speak in a loud voice for a long duration, such as an hour or more. c. speak briefly to the infant several times each day, with quiet time in between d. not expect memory until at least the age of 4 months.

Answer 160

c. speak briefly to the infant several times each day, with quiet time in between

Question 161

Carolyn Rovee-Collier's research used a moving mobile or a moving train to assess infant memory. This research shows a. a steady improvement in memory during the first 18 months of life. b. no consistent pattern in memory development because the measure of memory used for the first 6 months yields very different data from the measure of memory used later in infancy. c. a very low level of correct responses during the first 6 months, because infants' brain development is incomplete, followed by a very rapid increase in memory. d. a very rapid increase in memory during the first 6 months, followed by a more gradual increase and then a plateau.

Answer 161

a. a steady improvement in memory during the first 18 months of life.

Question 162

Memory research is easier to conduct with children than with infants. However, one potential problem when children participate in memory studies is that a. they have no measurable working memory. b. it is extremely difficult to motivate children to participate in research. c. children's shape perception will not be mature until they are about 8 years old. d. they may fail to understand the task instructions.

Answer 162

d. they may fail to understand the task instructions.

Question 163

According to the research on children's working memory, a. children's memory span remains fairly constant between the ages of about 2 and 10. b. children do not seem to have a functioning visuospatial sketchpad until they are about 10 years of age. c. scores on tests of phonological working memory are correlated with reading skills. d. scores on tests of visuospatial working memory do not seem to be correlated with any academic skills.

Answer 163

c. scores on tests of phonological working memory are correlated with reading skills.

Question 164

Suppose that 6-year-old children and college students are given several memory tasks. Which of the following tasks is likely to reveal the smallest differences between the two groups? a. Recall b. Recognition c. Working memory d. Source monitoring

Answer 164

b. Recognition

Question 165

What can we conclude about children's memory? a. Children's memory spans are remarkably similar to adults' memory spans. b. In general, children have excellent recognition memory. c. Children's recall memory does not improve substantially as they mature. d. Young children tend to recall items much more accurately than they recognize them.

Answer 165

b. In general, children have excellent recognition memory.

Question 166

Chapter 13 discussed children's autobiographical memory. According to the research on this topic, a. adolescents are very accurate in recalling events that had occurred to them when they were 2-3 years old. b. children develop a variety of memory strategies by time they are 4 years old, and these strategies help them increase their recall. c. children's source monitoring is highly accurate by the time they are 3 years old, and this skill help them increase their recall. d. children's language skills increase rapidly after the age of 2, and these skills help them increase their recall.

Answer 166

d. children's language skills increase rapidly after the age of 2, and these skills help them increase their recall.

Question 167

Suppose that a 4-year-old and a 10-year-old are working together to make a surprise birthday card for their father. Later, they tell their father which parts each of them constructed. Based on the material in Chapter 13, you would expect to find that a. the two children have similar accuracy, because working memory does not vary much with age. b. the two children have similar accuracy, because source monitoring does not vary much with age. c. the older child is more accurate, because the 4-year-old child will demonstrate almost complete childhood amnesia. d. the older child is more accurate, because source monitoring is more accurate for older children.

Answer 167

d. the older child is more accurate, because source monitoring is more accurate for older children.

Question 168

Suppose that you are reading a story to a group of 6-year-old children; the story concerns a young child who is dancing around the room. You say to the children, "Try to think about how it would feel if you were dancing around this classroom." Based on the research of Foley and Ratner (1998), you would probably find that a. some of the children would later report that they had in fact danced around the classroom. b. because children do not develop visual imagery until they are about 7 or 8, they would typically report, "You told us to think about dancing—but I didn't really dance." c. many children would report that they had actually heard dance music. d. the children would have no recall of the instructions, because they have so much difficulty understanding instructions.

Answer 168

a. some of the children would later report that they had in fact danced around the classroom.

Question 169

Ryan, age 16, is talking to his mother. He claims to remember a visit to England when he was only 18 months old. Ryan's mother, skeptical, suggests that he really only remembers hearing about the trip, because his parents talked about it so much over the years. Ryan's mother is suggesting that Ryan has made a a. source monitoring error. b. conjugate reinforcement error. c. utilization deficiency error. d. sensory memory failure.

Answer 169

a. source monitoring error.

Question 170

Suppose that you are enrolled in a child development course. In discussing children's memory, the professor says, "Preschool children are likely to demonstrate utilization deficiency." Which of the following options would be the most likely next sentence? a. "You can teach them memory strategies, but they may not use them appropriately." b. "They can only use organizational strategies; they cannot utilize rehearsal or imagery." c. "Preschoolers lack the brain development to utilize working memory. d. "They realize that memory strategies would increase their recall, but they have difficulty remembering what the strategies are."

Answer 170

a. "You can teach them memory strategies, but they may not use them appropriately."

Question 171

Studies of children's memory show that rehearsal a. is a highly effective memory strategy. b. is more likely in older children than in younger children. c. often occurs spontaneously in children as young as 2. d. is only helpful on long-term memory tasks.

Answer 171

b. is more likely in older children than in younger children.

Question 172

13-54. Studies of children's metamemory show that a. young children seem to have no knowledge of the way their memory works. b. young children don't seem to realize that you must use effort in order to learn a list of words. c. there are no substantial improvements in metamemory during childhood. d. children are surprisingly accurate in judging whether they have remembered an answer correctly.

Answer 172

b. young children don't seem to realize that you must use effort in order to learn a list of words.

Question 173

According to the research on children's memory strategies, a. even very young children make excellent use of the rehearsal strategy. b. rehearsal is one of the most effective memory strategies. c. young children typically group similar items together in order to learn lists of words. d. young children can remember better if they use rehearsal strategies, but they typically do not use them spontaneously.

Answer 173

d. young children can remember better if they use rehearsal strategies, but they typically do not use them spontaneously.

Question 174

What can we conclude about children's use of organizational strategies in memory? a. Young children are just as likely as older children to rearrange pictures of the words that they must remember. b. Most young children are aware that organization would be helpful in memory tasks, but they lack the ability to organize. c. Young children who have been taught an organizational strategy usually show improved recall. d. When young children are told, "Remember these items," they spontaneously organize the items.

Answer 174

c. Young children who have been taught an organizational strategy usually show improved recall.

Question 175

According to the research on children's memory, the imagery strategy a. is clearly the most useful mnemonic device that children can use in order to remember items. b. can be taught to children as a mnemonic device, but it only aids working memory. c. has not been demonstrated to be useful for children younger than 10 years of age. d. can sometimes be used effectively as a mnemonic device for children as young as 6 years of age.

Answer 175

d. can sometimes be used effectively as a mnemonic device for children as young as 6 years of age.

Question 176

Chapter 13 discussed the development of imagery as a strategy for improving children's memory. According to this discussion, a. children as young as 4 will spontaneously use imagery as an aid to their memory. b. children as young as 6 can be trained to use imagery as an aid to their memory. c. children as young as 6 can create mental images, but they cannot use imagery as a strategy for memory improvement. d. most college students make effective use of imagery as a memory strategy.

Answer 176

b. children as young as 6 can be trained to use imagery as an aid to their memory.

Question 177

Chapter 13 examined an experiment by Leichtman and Ceci on preschool children's eyewitness testimony. According to this research, a. children's expectations about a stranger's behavior did not affect their recall. b. children's memory may not be perfect, but they can distinguish between what really happened and a false statement of what had happened. c. children in the control condition were not very accurate in recalling events. d. under certain circumstances, young children are fairly likely to report events inaccurately.

Answer 177

d. under certain circumstances, young children are fairly likely to report events inaccurately.

Question 178

Suppose that you are on a jury in which a 7-year-old child has provided eyewitness testimony about an automobile accident. Based on what you know from Chapter 13, you should keep in mind that a. this child should be much less likely than a 3-year-old to be influenced by incorrect suggestions after the accident. b. this child should be much more likely than a 3-year-old to be influenced by incorrect suggestions after the accident. c. this child should be much more likely than a 3-year-old to be influenced by a stereotype that had been conveyed prior to the accident. d. this child's memory should not be influenced by either stereotypes or post-event information.

Answer 178

a. this child should be much less likely than a 3-year-old to be influenced by incorrect suggestions after the accident.

Question 179

The research on children's eyewitness testimony shows that a. children's accuracy is not correlated with the complexity of the interviewer's language. b. children's accuracy is not correlated with their age. c. young children are likely to make errors when the interviewer asks questions in an emotional tone. d. young children are likely to respond "I don't know" when they cannot recall the details of an event.

Answer 179

c. young children are likely to make errors when the interviewer asks questions in an emotional tone.

Question 180

Some of the research on children's eyewitness testimony has important implications for the courtroom. According to that research, a. children are more accurate if interviewers ask the questions in a very emotional tone. b. as children grow older, they are increasingly likely to change their mind during a cross-examination. c. children are more likely than adults to say "I don't know" if they are unsure about the accuracy of their memory. d. young children have fairly accurate memory, under ideal circumstances.

Answer 180

d. young children have fairly accurate memory, under ideal circumstances.

Question 181

Chapter 13 discussed eyewitness-testimony research by Henry and Gudjonsson. These researchers compared children with typical development and children with an intellectual disability. The results showed that the children with typical development a. recalled more items correctly and were less likely to be influenced by misleading information. b. recalled more items correctly and were equally likely to be influenced by misleading information. c. recalled the same number of items correctly and were less likely to be influenced by misleading information. d. recalled the same number of items correctly and were equally likely to be influenced by misleading information.

Answer 181

a. recalled more items correctly and were less likely to be influenced by misleading information.

Question 182

In Chapter 13, the Individual Differences Feature compared children who have intellectual disabilities and children in a mainstream school. Everyone watched a brief video and then answered questions. The results showed that the typically developing children a. did not differ from the children with intellectual disabilities on any measure. b. recalled the same number of items correctly, but they were less likely to recall the misleading information. c. recalled the same number of items correctly, but they were more likely to recall the misleading information. d. recalled a greater number of items correctly, and they were less likely to recall the misleading information.

Answer 182

d. recalled a greater number of items correctly, and they were less likely to recall the misleading information

Question 183

The discussion of working memory in elderly people pointed out that a. elderly people and young adults do not seem to differ on any measures of working memory. b. elderly people show consistent deficits on working memory tasks, in comparison with young adults. c. elderly people and young adults are most different from each other on easy working memory tasks. d. elderly people and young adults are most different from each other on difficult working memory tasks.

Answer 183

d. elderly people and young adults are most different from each other on difficult working memory tasks.

Question 184

Suppose that you are volunteering at a community program for elderly adults. With respect to working memory, you should remember that these elderly individuals will have the most difficulty when they are asked to a. store sounds in the phonological loop. b. remember sentences that are spoken at a normal rate. c. rearrange information before recalling it. d. recall more than three numbers in the same order in which they were presented.

Answer 184

c. rearrange information before recalling it.

Question 185

Suppose that your elderly uncle is coming to visit. You are concerned because you will be discussing some important issues and do not want to overload his working memory. Based on the information in Chapter 13, you would suspect that a. you probably do not need to worry, because no age-related differences have been reported for working memory. b. you probably do not need to worry, as long as you aren't talking to him while he is doing another complex task at the same time. c. you probably need to worry, because elderly people show deficits in the functioning of the phonological loop. d. you probably need to worry, because young adults and older adults have similar working memory only when speech rate is significantly slower than normal.

Answer 185

b. you probably do not need to worry, as long as you aren't talking to him while he is doing another complex task at the same time.

Question 186

Air traffic controllers are required to retire at the age of 56. This is because of age-related declines in a. long-term memory. b. working memory. c. autobiographical memory. d. logical reasoning.

Answer 186

b. working memory.

Question 187

According to the research on prospective memory, elderly people a. consistently make more errors than younger people. b. typically make more errors than younger people. c. make about the same number of errors as younger people. d. make about the same number of errors on real-life tasks, but more errors on tasks that are low in ecological validity.

Answer 187

b. typically make more errors than younger people.

Question 188

Your textbook compares prospective memory in younger adults and older adults. The research typically shows that elderly adults a. make fewer prospective memory errors, probably because they have developed effective strategies for remembering to do things in the future. b. make fewer prospective memory errors, probably because retired adults do not need to remember so many work-related responsibilities. c. make more prospective memory errors, probably because this kind of memory task is mostly based on working memory, and elderly people often have trouble with working memory. d. make more prospective memory errors, probably because this kind of task is mostly based on implicit memory, and elderly people often have trouble with implicit memory.

Answer 188

c. make more prospective memory errors, probably because this kind of memory task is mostly based on working memory, and elderly people often have trouble with working memory.

Question 189

The research on implicit memory in older adults shows that a. older adults have a slight advantage over younger adults in this area because of their greater life experience. b. older adults are much less accurate than younger adults in this area; in fact, the age differences are larger than on explicit memory tasks. c. older adults and younger adults perform fairly similarly on implicit memory tasks. d. the results in this area are extremely variable, depending upon the method used; some tasks reveal very large age-related differences, others reveal no differences whatsoever.

Answer 189

c. older adults and younger adults perform fairly similarly on implicit memory tasks.

Question 190

What can we conclude about memory in elderly people? a. Their implicit memory is substantially less accurate than that of young adults. b. Elderly people show rapid declines in recognition memory. c. Elderly people usually remember more material in the afternoon than in the morning. d. Elderly people sometimes have more difficulty than young adults on long-term recall tasks.

Answer 190

d. Elderly people sometimes have more difficulty than young adults on long-term recall tasks.

Question 191

Based on the information in Chapter 13, you could predict that elderly people would typically recall the most information on a. an explicit memory task in the morning. b. an explicit memory task in the late afternoon. c. an implicit memory task in the morning. d. an implicit memory task in the late afternoon.

Answer 191

c. an implicit memory task in the morning.

Question 192

On many long-term memory tasks, young adults remember more than older adults. However, the two groups are fairly similar a. when memory is measured in terms of recognition memory, rather than recall memory. b. when working on an explicit memory task, rather than an implicit memory task. c. when contextual cues are missing. d. when recalling unrelated pairs of English words.

Answer 192

a. when memory is measured in terms of recognition memory, rather than recall memory.

Question 193

Studies on long-term memory in elderly people usually show that a. elderly people show substantial deficits in implicit memory. b. elderly people and young adults perform similarly on all the major tests of long-term memory. c. elderly people are usually somewhat better than young adults in recalling people's names. d. in many—but not all—areas, young adults and elderly adults perform similarly.

Answer 193

d. in many—but not all—areas, young adults and elderly adults perform similarly.

Question 194

What can we conclude about the reasons for long-term memory problems in elderly individuals? a. Almost all of the deficits can be traced to factors other than a person's age. b. Elderly individuals consistently use less effective memory strategies. c. Most of the decline can be traced to deficits in language-processing skills. d. Some of the decline can be traced to changes in the brain.

Answer 194

d. Some of the decline can be traced to changes in the brain.

Question 195

As discussed in Chapter 13, researchers admit that we do not yet have a complete explanation for the fact that—on some long-term tasks—elderly adults remember less than young adults. However, which of the following students provides the best summary of one factor that accounts for age-related differences? a. Sergei: "Elderly adults remember contextual cues better than young adults, and these cues tend to disrupt performance on explicit recall tasks." b. Isabelle: "Elderly adults typically fail to use long-term memory strategies based on organization and imagery; as a result, information often cannot be retained in long-term memory." c. Mandy: "Elderly adults are more likely than young adults to have difficulty paying attention, which can affect performance on memory tasks." d. Christopher: "Elderly adults are much too confident about their memory skills, so they actually spend less time rehearsing the material."

Answer 195

c. Mandy: "Elderly adults are more likely than young adults to have difficulty paying attention, which can affect performance on memory tasks."

Question 196

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about memory in elderly adults, as opposed to younger adults? a. Kanako: "Elderly adults are much more likely to have decreased frontal-lobe activation." b. Stacey: "Elderly adults often have more trouble paying attention." c. Curtis: "Elderly adults have much more trouble using strategies to enhance their performance on long-term memory tasks." d. Juan: "Elderly adults have much more trouble on implicit memory tasks."

Answer 196

b. Stacey: "Elderly adults often have more trouble paying attention."

Question 197

Research on elderly people shows that they often take longer to perform cognitive tasks than do younger adults. This phenomenon is called a. contextual-cues deficit. b. implicit memory. c. semantic deficits. d. cognitive slowing.

Answer 197

d. cognitive slowing.

Question 198

Which of the following topics would be especially interesting to child psychologists who want to investigate theory of mind? a. Do children realize that parents can remember a longer list of words than children do? b. Which is a more effective memory strategy for 10-year-olds, imagery or organization? c. Do children perform better on implicit memory tasks or explicit memory tasks? d. Can utilization deficit explain children's poor performance on recall tasks?

Answer 198

a. Do children realize that parents can remember a longer list of words than children do?

Question 199

Which of the following students provides the best summary of the research on children's metamemory? a. Arthur: "Children understand some of the characteristics of memory, but they don't realize that you need to make a real effort in order to memorize something." b. Maya: "Children have very little awareness of any aspects of metacognition until they have reached school age." c. Katarina: "Children develop metacognitive abilities much earlier than psychologists had previously suspected; these skills are quite sophisticated by the time children reach school age." d. Luke: "Unfortunately, it is difficult to assess cognitive skills in preschool children; but 5-year-olds have metacognitive skills that resemble the skills of 10-year-olds."

Answer 199

a. Arthur: "Children understand some of the characteristics of memory, but they don't realize that you need to make a real effort in order to memorize something."

Question 200

According to the discussion of metamemory, children who are between the ages of about 5 and 10 typically a. believe that they need to make an effort if they genuinely want to remember something. b. underestimate how well they will perform on a memory test. c. were only slightly more confident about the items they had answered correctly, compared to their confidence about the items they had answered incorrectly. d. use appropriate memory strategies if they realize that they don't know the material.

Answer 200

c. were only slightly more confident about the items they had answered correctly, compared to their confidence about the items they had answered incorrectly.

Question 201

Jason is a 10-year-old boy who knows that a science test is scheduled for tomorrow morning. According to the discussion of children's metacognition, Jason probably a. believes that he doesn't need to spend much time studying for the test. b. plans to use distributed learning in studying for the test. c. can accurately assess which items he has mastered and which require more study. d. plans to use at least two different memory strategies in studying for the test.

Answer 201

a. believes that he doesn't need to spend much time studying for the test.

Question 202

Anna, who is 10-year-old, and her 5-year-old sister Penny watched a new animated movie, and then they are asked a series of questions about the movie. For each question they answer, they are also asked to rate their confidence in their answer. Which of the following is most likely to be true? a. For the questions they answered correctly, both Anna and Penny will be highly confident. b. For the questions they answered correctly, Anna will be much more confident than Penny. c. For the questions they answered incorrectly, both Anna and Penny will show a lack of confidence. d. For the questions they answered incorrectly, Anna will be more confident than Penny.

Answer 202

a. For the questions they answered correctly, both Anna and Penny will be highly confident.

Question 203

The discussion of children's metamemory examined research by Roebers and her colleagues. This research asked 5-10-year-old children to judge whether they had answered memory questions correctly. The results showed that a. these children were much more confident about the questions they answered correctly compared with the questions they answered incorrectly. b. these children were equally confident about the questions they answered correctly and the questions they answered incorrectly. c. these children were overconfident about the questions that they had actually answered incorrectly. d. these children were unable to understand the metamemory task, so the results of this study were inconclusive.

Answer 203

c. these children were overconfident about the questions that they had actually answered incorrectly.

Question 204

The research on the relationship between metamemory and children's memory performance is complicated. However, a general pattern is that a. children who have a well-developed metamemory tend to use strategies more wisely, but this does not improve their performance. b. metamemory is relatively easy to measure in young children. c. metamemory and memory performance are moderately correlated with each other. d. the correlations between metamemory and memory performance are significant only when we study younger children.

Answer 204

c. metamemory and memory performance are moderately correlated with each other.

Question 205

Chapter 13 discussed whether children's poor memory performance can be traced to faulty metamemory and ineffective use of memory strategies. According to this discussion, a. the correlation between metamemory and memory performance is extremely high. b. the correlation between metamemory and strategy use is high, but neither of these two factors is correlated with memory performance. c. the correlation between metamemory and memory performance is moderate, and it would probably be higher if we could accurately measure children's metamemory. d. none of the appropriate correlations is statistically significant, so some other factor—other than metamemory accuracy and strategy use—must account for children's memory deficits.

Answer 205

c. the correlation between metamemory and memory performance is moderate, and it would probably be higher if we could accurately measure children's metamemory.

Question 206

Which of the following students provides the best information about the metacognitive skills of elderly people? a. Pascal: "Elderly adults are similar to young adults in accurately predicting which items they will recall at a later time." b. Ladi: "Elderly adults are consistently less effective in monitoring their memory." c. Jacqueline: "Elderly adults have less knowledge than young adults about how their memory works." d. Lucy: "In general, elderly adults and young adults are similar, except that elderly adults spend less time on any given metacognitive task, in comparison to young adults."

Answer 206

a. Pascal: "Elderly adults are similar to young adults in accurately predicting which items they will recall at a later time."

Question 207

Older adults are more likely than younger adults to a. be able to monitor their memory performance accurately. b. select the most difficult items for further study rather than studying items that they have already mastered. c. know which memory strategies are most effective. d. be overconfident on working memory tasks.

Answer 207

d. be overconfident on working memory tasks.

Question 208

The discussion of metacognition in elderly adults suggests that a. adults typically experience a decline in all major metacognitive skills as they grow older. b. young adults are more aware than elderly adults that some memory strategies are more effective than other memory strategies. c. young adults are more accurate than elderly adults in predicting which items they will recall on a memory test. d. young adults and elderly adults are reasonably similar in many metacognitive skills.

Answer 208

d. young adults and elderly adults are reasonably similar in many metacognitive skills.

Question 209

Chapter 13 discusses elderly people's awareness of memory problems. According to this discussion, a. people who are high in memory self-efficacy typically believe that they cannot prevent memory problems. b. memory self-efficacy is especially strong in people with dementia. c. elderly people who are aware of their memory problems are less likely to develop memory strategies. d. the stereotype—about forgetfulness in late adulthood—may encourage elderly adults to believe that cognitive decline is unavoidable.

Answer 209

d. the stereotype—about forgetfulness in late adulthood—may encourage elderly adults to believe that cognitive decline is unavoidable.

Question 210

The research on infants' speech perception suggests that a. infants can appreciate phoneme similarities shortly after birth, but they cannot appreciate phoneme differences until they are almost 12 months old. b. infants have such limited skills that psychologists cannot design appropriate research on speech perception in infants younger than 6 months of age. c. by the time they are a few weeks old, infants can perceive the differences between two similar phonemes. d. the perception of phonemes does not change after the age of 6 months.

Answer 210

c. by the time they are a few weeks old, infants can perceive the differences between two similar phonemes.

Question 211

According to the research on infant speech perception, a. infants cannot distinguish between their native language and an unfamiliar language until they are about 1 year of age. b. infants' ability to appreciate phoneme contrasts in an unfamiliar language improves substantially during the first 2 years of life. c. infants are slow to develop language because they cannot recognize the basic phonemes of their native language until they are about 9 months of age. d. by the age of about 5 months, infants respond more to their own name than to a different name.

Answer 211

d. by the age of about 5 months, infants respond more to their own name than to a different name

Question 212

Imagine that you are volunteering in a child-care center, and you are currently taking care of infants who are less than 1 year of age. Which of the following language skills would you expect to be the first one to develop? a. The infants can recognize the sound of their own name. b. The infants look longer at their mother when hearing the word "Mommy"; they look longer at their father when hearing the word "Daddy." c. The infants have developed some sophisticated concepts, for example, realizing that an unfamiliar animal is likely to drink water. d. The infants appreciate that an angry voice goes with an angry facial expression.

Answer 212

a. The infants can recognize the sound of their own name.

Question 213

Younger infants are actually more skilled than older infants and adults in a. recognizing their own names. b. perceiving speech-sound contrasts in their native language. c. recognizing similarities in speech sounds. d. distinguishing speech sounds in unfamiliar languages.

Answer 213

d. distinguishing speech sounds in unfamiliar languages.

Question 214

According to research by Walker-Andrews, the understanding that facial expression must correspond with vocal intonation is present at the age of a. 7 months. b. 3 days. c. 2 years. d. 5 years.

Answer 214

a. 7 months.

Question 215

Chapter 13 discusses research by McDonough and Mandler, in which 9-month-olds showed that they knew that animals drink, whereas vehicles can carry people. This research suggests that babies a. show habituation. b. prefer nouns and verbs to words that merely show a grammatical function. c. are aware of syntax. d. appreciate semantic concepts.

Answer 215

d. appreciate semantic concepts.

Question 216

According to the discussion of early language production, a. true babbling involves only vowels. b. babbling is a form of intentional communication. c. when infants are 1-month-old, their babbling already sounds like the language spoken in their home. d. intentional communication begins at about 9 months of age.

Answer 216

d. intentional communication begins at about 9 months of age.

Question 217

According to the discussion of child-directed speech, a. adults who use child-directed speech tend to make language acquisition somewhat easier for children. b. adults who use child-directed speech actually make language acquisition more difficult for children. c. unfortunately, fathers are not skilled in using child-directed speech. d. unfortunately, older children are not skilled in using child-directed speech.

Answer 217

a. adults who use child-directed speech tend to make language acquisition somewhat easier for children.

Question 218

Chapter 13 discussed research about whether 12-18-month-old children can learn language by watching a DVD. The DVD shows a household object, while a voiceover says the object's name. According to the results, children learned significantly more words a. if the children watched the video by themselves, compared with a control group that had no video. b. if the parent taught the child the words, compared with the child learning the words from the video. c. if the parent watched the video and interacted with the child, compared with the child just watching the video. d. if the child was in the control group, without any video or teaching; their vocabulary actually increased as much as when children's parents taught them the words.

Answer 218

b. if the parent taught the child the words, compared with the child learning the words from the video.

Question 219

A father says to his son, "Go over to the chair and get my overcoat." (The overcoat is the only item on the chair.) The next day, the son talks about his daddy's overcoat; apparently he has already learned this new word. This is an example of a. pragmatics. b. habituation. c. an overextension. d. fast mapping.

Answer 219

d. fast mapping.

Question 220

A mother hands little Marc his familiar bowl, which contains a red fruit he has never seen before. She says, "Look, here are some strawberries!" When he sees this same fruit at dinnertime, he points and says a word something like "strawberries." Marc is demonstrating a. overextension. b. fast mapping. c. an appreciation of syntax. d. an appreciation of pragmatics.

Answer 220

b. fast mapping.

Question 221

Suppose that a child uses the word baby to refer to toddlers and older children as well as infants. This would be an example of a. overregularization. b. overextension. c. incorrect syntax. d. fast mapping.

Answer 221

b. overextension.

Question 222

Which of the following is an example of the concept overregularization? a. A child asks an embarrassing question to a stranger. b. A child shows inappropriate fast mapping. c. A child says, "I eated my cereal." d. A child talks to a younger child, using overly difficult language.

Answer 222

c. A child says, "I eated my cereal."

Question 223

Young Jamie tells his mother, "Doggy runned away from me." The use of "runned" is an example of a. fast mapping. b. overextension. c. overregularization. d. syntax.

Answer 223

c. overregularization.

Question 224

Suppose that you are scanning a journal in child development. You see the title of an article about language, which emphasizes the word "morphology." The most likely topic of this article would be how children a. learn new words. b. create the past tense for verbs. c. combine words into sentences. d. describe how a toy works, when speaking to a younger child.

Answer 224

b. create the past tense for verbs.

Question 225

Which of the following examples would be most consistent with Marcus's (1996) rule-and-memory theory for children's choice of past-tense verbs? a. Children systematically add "-ed" to every present-tense verb, to create a past-tense verb, and they remember this rule. b. Children typically add "-ed" to present-tense verbs, but they have also learned the past tense of a small number of irregular verbs. c. Children create a rule, based on adults' models of past tense, and the children store this rule in long-term memory. d. Children keep a tally of the statistically likely pattern of past-tense words, and they retrieve this rule from memory when appropriate.

Answer 225

b. Children typically add "-ed" to present-tense verbs, but they have also learned the past tense of a small number of irregular verbs.

Question 226

If children follow Marcus's "rule-and-memory" theory for creating the plural form of nouns, we would expect that English-speaking children would a. add the ending "s" or "es" to every noun. b. vary the strategy for creating a plural form, and then notice which strategy receives the most positive reaction from grownups. c. add "s" or "es" to most nouns, but remember some important words that have an irregular plural. d. use overextensions more frequently than overregularizations.

Answer 226

c. add "s" or "es" to most nouns, but remember some important words that have an irregular plural.

Question 227

An important factor that helps children develop their syntax is that a. they develop fast mapping at an early age. b. they become skilled at overextensions. c. their working memory increases, allowing them to produce more combinations of words. d. they become less self-centered, so that it becomes easier to convey a request to another person.

Answer 227

c. their working memory increases, allowing them to produce more combinations of words.

Question 228

Jenny is 4 years old, and she has recently learned that she should not tell other people that they are fat. What aspect of language has this child demonstrated? a. Syntax b. Overextension c. Morphology d. Pragmatics

Answer 228

d. Pragmatics

Question 229

Imagine that 6-year-old Debbie is beginning to tell you a story about her family' trip to a folk song festival. Before she starts, she says, "O.K., have you ever heard about the Old Songs Folk Festival?" Her skill in determining whether you have the appropriate background for the story is most relevant to an aspect of language called a. syntax. b. pragmatics. c. source monitoring. d. fast mapping.

Answer 229

b. pragmatics.

Question 230

Suppose that a 4-year-old boy has just visited the zoo. He is describing what he saw, first to an adult, and then to his 2-year-old sister. You would expect to find that a. he uses the same kind of language for both people. b. he inappropriately uses more complicated language for his sister than for the adult. c. he uses more complicated language for the adult than for his sister. d. he would use more complicated language for the adult only if he is gifted in language skills.

Answer 230

c. he uses more complicated language for the adult than for his sister.

Question 231

Imagine that you are babysitting for a 5-year-old girl named Chloe. You are telling Chloe about a trip you took last week. Chloe would be most likely to a. nod her head from time to time. b. interrupt you continuously, because she has no appreciation for turn-taking. c. fail to provide any indication that she is listening to you. d. respond to you by using the same kind of language she would use for a younger child.

Answer 231

a. nod her head from time to time.

Question 232

13-58. Research on metamemory in elderly people shows that a. in general, elderly people and young adults have similar beliefs about how their memory works. b. elderly people are less accurate than young adults in predicting which items on a list they will later remember. c. ironically, young adults are more likely than elderly adults to report problems with their memory. d. elderly people and young adults are equally likely to overestimate their total score on a memory test.

Answer 232

a. in general, elderly people and young adults have similar beliefs about how their memory works.

Question 233

1. Research showing that neonates and very young infants can recognize their mother's voice and face has investigated: a) EEG changes recorded from the cerebellum. b) heart rate changes. c) self-reports from mothers of various cultures. d) verbal communications with the researcher.

Answer 233

b) heart rate changes.

Question 234

2. Studies have found that both college students and infants learn better with a) spaced learning. b) massed learning. c) irregular learning. d) bidirectional learning.

Answer 234

a) spaced learning.

Question 235

Your textbook describes several methodological problems that arise when conducting research with elderly individuals. These problems included the fact that a. elderly people tend to be better educated than younger people. b. younger people are typically more anxious than elderly people. c. health may be a confounding variable. d. irrelevant variables are often too carefully controlled.

Answer 235

c. health may be a confounding variable.

Question 236

Your textbook's summary of infant memory described a research study in which 3-month-old White babies looked repeatedly at one photo, of either a White woman or an Asian woman. Then the babies saw this same photo placed next to a photo of an unfamiliar woman, from the same racial category. What results did the researchers find? a. If the babies had initially seen a photo of a White woman, they then looked more at the photo of an unfamiliar White woman. b. If the babies had initially seen a photo of a White woman, they then looked less at the photo of an unfamiliar White woman. c. If the babies had initially seen a photo of an Asian woman, they then looked more at the photo of an unfamiliar Asian woman. d. If the babies had initially seen a photo of an Asian woman, they then looked less at the photo of an unfamiliar Asian woman.

Answer 236

a. If the babies had initially seen a photo of a White woman, they then looked more at the photo of an unfamiliar White woman.

Question 237

When infants are exposed to post-event information that does not match the original information, they a. respond the same as adults; both adults and infants can keep the two kinds of information separate in their memory. b. respond the same as adults; both adults and infants recall the original event less accurately if they have seen post-event information. c. respond differently from adults; infants are less likely to be influenced by post-event information. d. respond differently from adults; because of their short attention span, infants cannot be tested with this technique.

Answer 237

b. respond the same as adults; both adults and infants recall the original event less accurately if they have seen post-event information.

Question 238

Suppose that a friend tells you that he has no recall of anything that happened when he lived in his old house, where his family lived until he was 3. This kind of phenomenon is often called a. source monitoring. b. childhood amnesia. c. theory of mind. d. implicit memory.

Answer 238

b. childhood amnesia.

Question 239

According to the discussion of childhood amnesia, a. with the appropriate research techniques, psychologists have demonstrated that this so-called childhood amnesia does not really exist. b. college students recall little information about the birth of a sibling, if the students were younger than 2 at the time of that birth. c. childhood amnesia can be completely explained by the fact that regions of the brain are not mature until a child reaches the age of 5. d. childhood amnesia can be completely explained by the fact that young children repress their memories of early childhood.

Answer 239

b. college students recall little information about the birth of a sibling, if the students were younger than 2 at the time of that birth.

Question 240

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about childhood amnesia? a. "In general, children cannot recall events that occurred prior to the age of 5, even if the events were important at the time." b. "Childhood amnesia is still a mystery, especially because researchers have established that the relevant portions of the cortex are fully developed by the age of 3." c. "When adolescents and adults try to recall events that occurred during their first 10 years of life, most of their recalled events occurred when they were between the ages of 5 and 10." d. "Actually, when the research is conducted properly, there is no evidence for childhood amnesia."

Answer 240

c. "When adolescents and adults try to recall events that occurred during their first 10 years of life, most of their recalled events occurred when they were between the ages of 5 and 10."

Question 241

According to the research on children's metamemory, 4-year-olds a. know that it is easier to remember 4 items than to remember 6 items. b. know that related words are easier to remember than unrelated words. c. know that they need to make an effort in order to remember something. d. overestimate the number of items that they answered correctly on a memory test.

Answer 241

a. know that it is easier to remember 4 items than to remember 6 items.

Question 242

Which of the following students' statements best summarizes the research on children's metamemory? a. "Although children understand some of the characteristics of memory, they don't realize that you need to make a real effort in order to memorize something." b. "Children have very little awareness of any aspects of metacognition until they have reached school age." c. "Children develop metacognitive abilities much earlier than psychologists had previously suspected; these skills are quite sophisticated by the time children reach school age." d. "Unfortunately, metacognition is one of those areas in which it is difficult to assess cognitive skills in preschool children; the youngest children who have been tested (5-years-olds) do appear to have some metacognitive skills."

Answer 242

a. "Although children understand some of the characteristics of memory, they don't realize that you need to make a real effort in order to memorize something."

Question 243

A researcher presents an odor many times until a baby stops responding to it. This process is called a. operant conditioning. b. fast mapping. c. habituation. d. situated cognition.

Answer 243

c. habituation.

Question 244

According to studies of infants' speech perception, a. babies are unable to distinguish consonants until they are about 8 months old. b. 6-month-old babies can distinguish among speech sounds, but research techniques are not advanced enough to test younger infants. c. babies as young as 4 months of age can distinguish among sounds as similar as b and p. d. the habituation-dishabituation method cannot be used for infants less than a year of age.

Answer 244

c. babies as young as 4 months of age can distinguish among sounds as similar as b and p.

Question 245

The research on infants' recognition of important words shows that a. infants can say words like "mommy" before they can understand them. b. infants prefer to listen to nouns and verbs, instead of words such as "in" and "the." c. by the age of 6 months, infants can generalize the word "mommy" to other adult females. d. infants have such limited responses that it's difficult to test word recognition in infants younger than 1 year of age.

Answer 245

b. infants prefer to listen to nouns and verbs, instead of words such as "in" and "the."

Question 246

Imagine that you visit Chuck and Diane, who have a two-year-old child. If they are typical of most parents interacting with children, a. Chuck will be more likely than Diane to respond to the child's unclear request with a nonspecific "what?" question. b. both parents will use child-directed speech in a highly similar fashion. c. Diane will use child-directed speech, whereas Chuck will use the same language he would use with an adult. d. Chuck will use child-directed speech only if he is a secondary caregiver.

Answer 246

a. Chuck will be more likely than Diane to respond to the child's unclear request with a nonspecific "what?" question.

Question 247

Suppose that the child next door uses the word fruit to apply only to apples, oranges, and bananas, but refuses to believe that watermelons, kiwis, and other less familiar foods can be called fruit. This would be an example of a. fast mapping. b. overextension. c. underextension. d. telegraphic speech.

Answer 247

c. underextension.

Question 248

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about children's understanding of morphology? a. "By the age of about 15 months, children pay more attention to sentences if they have the correct morphology." b. "Children don't seem to have any overall system for taking a singular noun and making it into a plural noun." c. "Children whose parents read to them are not likely to overregularize the plural ending of regular nouns." d. "Children seem to learn how to make plural forms of verbs by imitating their parents' language."

Answer 248

a. "By the age of about 15 months, children pay more attention to sentences if they have the correct morphology."

Question 249

Research by Rovee-Collier has revealed that infants: a. can imitate actions they had seen, but only if they are tested within a minute or two b. cannot discriminate their mother's face until they are at least 3 months old c. can remember how to activate a mobile even after a delay of several weeks d. do not show a distributed practice, or spacing, effect on memory tasks

Answer 249

c. can remember how to activate a mobile even after a delay of several weeks

Question 250

Working memory, as measured in terms of the number of items that can be correctly recalled immediately after presentation: a. increases dramatically during childhood b. is essentially zero until a child reaches the age of 5 or 6 years old c. cannot be tested until a child is about 5 or 6 years old d. is about seven items throughout early and late childhood

Answer 250

a. increases dramatically during childhood

Question 251

By the time they are about _____ years old, children's working memory span is about the same as the typical college student. a. 1 b. 2 c. 9 d. 12

Answer 251

d. 12

Question 252

Typically, young children have a. good recognition and recall memory b. good recognition memory, but poor recall memory c. poor recognition memory, but good recall memory d. poor recognition and recall memory

Answer 252

b. good recognition memory, but poor recall memory

Question 253

The term childhood amnesia refers to the finding that: a. the prefrontal cortex of children is fully developed when an infant is about 6 months old, at which time he or she shows excellent long-term memory b. infants and young children show no ability to remember anything unless they are tested within the span of working memory c. older children and adults typically cannot recall personal events they experienced before they were about 2 or 3 years old d. infants and young children show no memory of events that occurred before they were born.

Answer 253

c. older children and adults typically cannot recall personal events they experienced before they were about 2 or 3 years old

Question 254

Below the age of ____, source memory for children tends to much worse than in adults. a. 2 b. 5 c. 7 d. 12

Answer 254

c. 7

Question 255

Young children use a. rehearsal as a memory strategy b. organizational strategies c. imagery d. few memory strategies in a consistent manner

Answer 255

d. few memory strategies in a consistent manner

Question 256

A recent study (Henry & Gudjonsson, 2007) investigating accuracy of eyewitness testimony revealed that compared to typically developing children, children with intellectual disability: a. made fewer errors in response to misleading questions b. recalled fewer items from a video clip c. performed surprisingly better on several measures of working memory d. All of the above are correct.

Answer 256

b. recalled fewer items from a video clip

Question 257

An important variable that influences older adults' performance on memory tasks involves whether: a. the working-memory task involves letters or digits b. the task is an implicit or explicit recognition-memory task c. they are tested in the morning or in the evening d. All of the above are correct

Answer 257

c. they are tested in the morning or in the evening

Question 258

What is the current status of research on the hypothesis that older adults show cognitive slowing, or a slower rate of responding on cognitive tasks? a. The hypothesis has been shown to be untenable (rejected) in nearly all relevant experiments b. The hypothesis can easily account for all major age-related differences in working- and long-term memory c. The hypothesis can account for some age-related differences in memory, but not all of them d. The hypothesis has not yet been tested in any relevant experimental situations

Answer 258

c. The hypothesis can account for some age-related differences in memory, but not all of them

Question 259

Children's ideas on how their minds work and on their beliefs about other people's thoughts: a. develop gradually, reaching a level similar to that of adults when the child is about 2 or 3 years old b. reveal that such metacognitive abilities are not yet fully developed by even the age of 7 years c. reveal that children are underconfident in their memory performance, whereas college students are overconfident d. cannot be tested experimentally because of the inherently limited communication skills of children

Answer 259

b. reveal that such metacognitive abilities are not yet fully developed by even the age of 7 years

Question 260

Compared with older adults, children a. have a similar metamemory ability b. are better at metamemory c. are worse at metamemory d. have no metamemory ability

Answer 260

c. are worse at metamemory

Question 261

Compared to how the metamemory skills of younger adults relates to memory performance, those of older adults: a. are better, perhaps because of the older adults' use of memory strategies b. are significantly worse, and the impairment is age-related and progressive c. do not differ in any substantial way d. cannot be accurately measured because older adults' actual memory performance is so poor

Answer 261

a. are better, perhaps because of the older adults' use of memory strategies

Question 262

Performing a task where participants have to complete a series of word fragments is most directly an example of

Answer 262

Implicit memory task

Question 263

Which of the following is false about young children?

Answer 263

They are significantly more confident in their correct answers than incorrect answers