Exam 4 (Psych (Exam))

Question 1

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 1

Type of reasoning that begins with some specific premises that are assumed to be true. Next one judges whether those premises allow a particular conclusion to be drawn, based on principles of logic.

Question 2

Conditional reasoning task (Propositional reasoning task)

Answer 2

Deductive reasoning task that describes the relationship between conditions. Conditional reasoning tasks are often presented in an “if .. then” format.

Question 3

Syllogism

Answer 3

Common deductive reasoning task that consists of two statements that one must assume to be true, plus a conclusion. Syllogisms refer to quantities, so they use the words all, none, some, and other similar terms.

Question 4

Propositional Calculus

Answer 4

In deductive reasoning, a system for categorizing four kinds of reasoning in analyzing statements that are made up of antecedents and consequents. When working on a conditional reasoning task, a person can perform two possible actions (1) affirm part of sentences saying its true, (2) deny part of the sentence saying its false.

Question 5

Propositions

Answer 5

In deductive reasoning, propositions are statements that are made up of antecedents and consequents.

Question 6

Antecedent

Answer 6

In conditional reasoning tasks, first proposition or statement, the antecedent is contained in the “if” part of the sentence.

Question 7

Consequent

Answer 7

In conditional reasoning tasks, the proposition that comes second, is the consequence. The consequent in the “then” part of the sentence.

Question 8

Affirming the antecedent

Answer 8

In conditional reasoning tasks, claiming that the “if” part of the sentence is true. Leads to a valid or correct conclusion.

Question 9

Affirming the consequent

Answer 9

In conditional reasoning tasks, the fallacy (or error) of claiming that the “then” part of the sentence is true. Leads to an invalid conclusion.

Question 10

Denying the antecedent

Answer 10

In conditional reasoning tasks, the fallacy (or error) of claiming that the “if” part of the sentence is false. Leads to an invalid conclusion.

Question 11

Denying the consequent

Answer 11

In conditional reasoning tasks, claiming that the “then” part of the sentence is false. Leads to a valid or correct conclusion.

Question 12

Dual-process theory

Answer 12

In reasoning and decision-making, the approach that distinguishes between two types of cognitive processing.

Question 13

Type 1 processing

Answer 13

According to dual-process theory in reasoning and decision making. Fast, automatic, and require little conscious attention.

Question 14

Type 2 processing

Answer 14

Relatively slow and controlled requiring focused attention and typically more accurate. Requires focused attention and performance is more accurate if person used Type 1 processing on that same task. Requires a more effortful analytic approach (focused attention and working memory so people can realize their initial conclusion wouldn’t be correct).

Question 15

Belief-bias effect

Answer 15

When people make reasoning judgements based on prior beliefs and general knowledge, rather than on the rules of logic. In general, people make errors when the logic of a reasoning problem conflicts with their background knowledge. Example of Top-Down Processing (Theme 5). People with low scores on intelligence tests are likely to demonstrate belief-bias effect.

Question 16

Confirmation bias

Answer 16

Tendency to try to confirm or support a hypothesis rather than try to disprove it.

Question 17

Decision making

Answer 17

Assessing information and choosing among two or more alternatives. Compared to deductive reasoning, decision making is more ambiguous.

Question 18

Heuristic

Answer 18

General rule or problem-solving strategy that produces a correct solution but can lead to cognitive errors.

Question 19

Representative

Answer 19

In decision-making when a sample looks similar in important characteristics to the population from which it was selected.

Question 20

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 20

General rule in decision-making that people use when trying to decide which outcome would be more likely. People who use this heuristic make judgements in terms of similarity between sample and population from which sample was selected. People believe that a coin toss of HTTHTH is more likely than coin toss of HHHTTT.

Question 21

Small-sample fallacy

Answer 21

In decision-making, the assumption that a small sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected. This assumption leads to incorrect decisions.

Question 22

Base rate

Answer 22

In decision-making, how often an item occurs in the population. People ignore this useful information.

Question 23

Base-rate fallacy

Answer 23

In decision-making, paying too little attention to important information about how often an item occurs in the population (its base rate).

Question 24

Conjunction rule

Answer 24

A rule stating that the probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be larger than the probability of either of its constituent events.

Question 25

Conjunction fallacy

Answer 25

A decision-making error that occurs when people judge the probability of the conjunction of two events to be greater than the probability of either constituent event.

Question 26

Availability heuristic

Answer 26

Estimating frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something.

Question 27

Illusory correlation

Answer 27

An inappropriate combination of features (combining one object’s shape with a nearby object’s color). This is formed when the visual system is overwhelmed by too many simultaneous tasks.

Question 28

Social cognition approach

Answer 28

View that stereotypes and many other components of social psychology can be traced to normal cognitive processes.

Question 29

Anchor

Answer 29

In decision-making, the first approximation used in the anchoring and adjustment heuristic.

Question 30

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic (anchoring effect)

Answer 30

In decision-making, beginning with a first approximation which serves as an anchor, and then adjusting that anchor based on additional information. Typically, people rely too heavily on the anchor and their adjustments are too small.

Question 31

Framing effect

Answer 31

In decision making, when decisions are influenced by (1) the background context of the choice or (2) the way in which a question is worded (or framed).

Question 32

Prospect theory

Answer 32

In decision making, people’s tendencies to think that possible gains are different from possible losses. When dealing with possible gains (lives saved) people tend to avoid risks. When dealing with possible losses (lives lost) people tend to seek risks.

Question 33

Overconfidence

Answer 33

When one’s confidence judgements are higher than they should be, based on actual performance on the task.

Question 34

Crystal-ball technique

Answer 34

In decision making, imagining that a completely accurate crystal ball has determined a favored hypothesis is actually incorrect. Therefore, the decision makers must search for alternative explanations for the outcome.

Question 35

Planning fallacy

Answer 35

The tendency (1) underestimates the amount of time (or money) required to complete a project and (2) estimate that the task will be relatively easy to complete.

Question 36

Hindsight

Answer 36

In decision making, people’s judgements about events that already happened in the past.

Question 37

Hindsight bias

Answer 37

In decision making, the belief, after an event has already happened that the event had been inevitable and was predicted all along.

Question 38

Ecological rationality

Answer 38

In decision making, a description of how people create a wide variety of heuristics to help make useful, adaptive choices in the real world.

Question 39

Default heuristic

Answer 39

In decision making, the tendency to choose a default option when one is presented.

Question 40

Lifespan approach to development

Answer 40

The view that developmental changes continue beyond young adulthood. People continue to change and adapt throughout their entire lives.

Question 41

Conjugate reinforcement technique

Answer 41

Method for investigating cognition in infants, using a mobile hanging above a young infant’s crib. Ribbon connects the infant’s ankle and the mobile, so that the infant’s kicks will make the mobile move.

Question 42

Spaced learning

Answer 42

When learning new material, the situation in which the learner distributes her or his practice over time. This learning strategy is more effective than massed learning.

Question 43

Massed learning

Answer 43

When learning new material, the situation in which the learner practices the material all at the same time by cramming. Less effective than spaced learning.

Question 44

Source monitoring

Answer 44

The process of trying to identify the origin of a particular memory.

Question 45

Script

Answer 45

A simple, well-structured sequence of events in a specified order. Usually associated with a highly familiar activity.

Question 46

Memory strategies

Answer 46

Intentional, goal-oriented mental activities that a person performs, to improve encoding and retrieval of information in memory.

Question 47

Utilization deficiency

Answer 47

The problem of not using memory strategies effectively. Common in young children.

Question 48

Prospective memory

Answer 48

Remembering that one needs to do something in the future, such as buying an item on the way home from classes. In contrast, retrospective memory refers to remembering things that happened in the past.

Question 49

Explicit memory task

Answer 49

Memory task in which participants are instructed to remember some information. Later, a recall or recognition test requires them to intentionally retrieve that previously learned information.

Question 50

Implicit memory task

Answer 50

Indirect measure of memory. Participants see the material. Later during the test phase, they are instructed to complete a cognitive task that doesn’t directly ask for either recall or recognition. Previous experience with the material facilitates performance on later tasks.

Question 51

Recognition memory

Answer 51

Research shows that long-term recognition memory declines slowly or not at all as people grow older. Recognition memory found that 20 year olds recognized 67% of words presented earlier.

Question 52

Chunking

Answer 52

Memory strategy in which the learner combines several small units to create larger units.

Question 53

Cognitive slowing

Answer 53

Reduced rate of responding on cognitive tasks. Often observed in elderly.

Question 54

Metacognition

Answer 54

Knowledge and control of cognitive processes, metacognition helps to supervise the way one selects and uses memory strategies. Metacognition includes metamemory, metacomprehension, and metalinguistics. Related to both the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon and feeling of knowing.

Question 55

Metamemory

Answer 55

A kind of metacognition that refers to one’s knowledge, monitoring, and control of memory.

Question 56

Theory of mind

Answer 56

A specific kind of metacognition, which refers to your ideas about how your own mind works, as well as other people’s minds work.

Question 57

Metacomprehension

Answer 57

A kind of metacognition, referring to a person’s thoughts that specifically focus on language comprehension. Most research about metacomprehension focuses on reading comprehension, rather than on the comprehension of spoken speech or on other kinds of knowledge about language.

Question 58

Dementia

Answer 58

Disorder that includes memory problems and other cognitive deficits. Individuals with dementia typically have difficulty estimating their memory abilities.

Question 59

Memory self-efficacy

Answer 59

Person’s beliefs in his or her own potential to perform well on memory tasks.