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Biol 1201 > Exam 4 (FINAL) > Flashcards

Exam 4 (FINAL) Flashcards

1
Q

How many cells make up the body?

A

50-100 trillion

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2
Q

What cells does the influenza virus affect?

A

Cells in the respiratory tract

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3
Q

What cells does the avian influenza virus affect?

A

Cells in the digestive system of birds

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4
Q

How do influenza virus cells affect respiratory tract cells?

A

Virus cells bind to respiratory cells, replicate, and then get out and spread

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5
Q

How does the avian influenza affect humans?

A

It recognizes cells in the lower part of the respiratory tract (lungs) and will most likely kill humans

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6
Q

What is the relationship between virus and patient?

A

Commensialistic symbiotic relationship

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7
Q

What is the basic structure of a virus?

A

Genome, Protein Shell (Capsid), Membraneous Envelope (phospholipid bilayer), some have glycoproteins on the envelope (H&N)

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8
Q

How does RNAi act as a viral defense mechanism?

A

It recognizes dsRNA and destroys it

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9
Q

What is the viral structure of a tobacco mosaic virus?

A

RNA in a capsomere of capsid

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10
Q

What is the viral structure of adenoviruses?

A

Hexagonal shaped capsomere containing DNA inside and surrounded by glycoproteins on the exterior

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11
Q

What is the viral structure of influenza viruses?

A

Circular membranous envelope with glycoproteins on the exterior. Contains capsids and RNA

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12
Q

What is the viral structure of bacteriophages?

A

Has a head containing DNA, tail sheath, and tail fiber

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13
Q

What kind of viral structure infects E. Coli?

A

Bacteriophage

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14
Q

What are the steps of the viral replicative cycle?

A

ss virus finds the cell with its glycoproteins. It binds to the surface of the host cell, and the viral contents end up in the host cell. The viral genome comes in and uses the cell’s transcription machinery to make viral proteins and replicate viral DNA. The newly formed virus exits to infect other cells.

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15
Q

What are the steps of the Lytic Cycle?

A

Infection of host cells. The infected cell synthesizes viral genome, protein (capsid), and other viral components. The host cell lyses (disintegrates) and releases particles.

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16
Q

What are the steps of the Lysogenic Cycle?

A

Infection of host cells. Viral DNA integrates into host DNA. Every time the host cell divides, the virus genome also replicates.

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17
Q

What is the class and genome of varicella (chicken pox)?

A

Herpesvirus. dsDNA

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18
Q

What is the class and genome of the influenza virus?

A

Orthomyxovirus. ssRNA

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19
Q

What is the class and genome of HIV?

A

Retrovirus. ssRNA

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20
Q

What has the lowest rate of mutagenesis?

A

Chicken pox because our human enzyme replicates dsDNA accurately

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21
Q

What has the highest rate of mutagenesis? Why?

A

HIV. It uses reverse transcriptase which makes more mistakes.

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22
Q

Why does influenza have a high rate of mutagenesis?

A

It uses RNA dependent RNA polymerase, and the influenza protein lacks the ability to correct errors.

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23
Q

What are the components of HIV?

A

ssRNA. Capsid protein. Viral envelope with glycoproteins. Reverse transcriptase.

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24
Q

cells in your body that put out CD4 proteins, HIV virus targets these cells as hosts

A

helper T cells

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25
Q

How does HIV replicate?

A

Once the virus is in the cell, it unloads two sRNA, reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease. Virus uses reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA then integrates it into the cell’s DNA. Cell replicates, replicating viral DNA as well. mRNA is made from this DNA which now codes for viral proteins. Protease cleaves the viral proteins apart, and the peptide cleavage produces mature viral proteins.

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26
Q

How does one acquire AIDS?

A

Generation 2 of viruses attack other helper T cells (but some are killed by antibodies). Defense cells in the lymph system are attacked and depleted over time. Death by opportunistic infection.

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27
Q

What does AIDS stand for?

A

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

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28
Q

What are four strategies for AIDS treatment?

A

Inhibit HIV fusion and entry. Inhibit reverse transcriptase. Inhibit Integrase (prevent the incorporation of viral DNA into the host genome). Inhibit viral peptide processing.

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29
Q

How do HIV protease inhibitors help in AIDS treatment?

A

HIV protease inhibitors block the activity of HIV enzyme that alter viral proteins and convert them to their active forms

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30
Q

How do vaccines work?

A

stimulate natural immunodefense system before infection with inactivated toxins, weakened or dead microbes

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31
Q

Highly contagious respiratory infection that enters the body through mucus membranes in the mouth, nose, or eyes

A

Influenza (the flu)

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32
Q

respiratory disease of pigs caused by type A influenza viruses that cause regular outbreaks in pigs

A

swine flu

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33
Q

caused by influenza viruses that occur naturally among wild birds but is DEADLY to humans

A

Avian flu

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34
Q

human flu that causes a global outbreak of serious illness

A

Pandemic flu

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35
Q

influenza which most people have some immunity to, and available vaccines

A

Seasonal or (common) flu

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36
Q

What are the two primary functions of Influenza Hemagglutinin?

A

To identify vertebrate cells by binding to host cell receptors. Allowing the entry of the viral genome into the target cells.

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37
Q

the protein against which the host directs antibodies that can neutralize the virus

A

influenza hemagglutinin

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38
Q

How many HA subtypes are there?

A

18

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39
Q

Which HA subtypes are found in human influenza?

A

H1-3

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40
Q

HA subtype that attacks proteins in the digestive system of birds.

A

H5

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41
Q

Enzyme that helps the virus to be released from a host cell

A

Viral Neuraminidase

42
Q

How many subtypes of Neuraminidase are there?

A

9

43
Q

What do neuraminidase inhibitors do?

A

limit the severity and spread of viral infections

44
Q

What is the genome of the H1N1 virus?

A

2 avian, 4 swine, and 2 human origins (8 ssRNA)

45
Q

reshuffling of different variants (strains) of the flu

A

Antigenic shift

46
Q

Where does antigenic shift usually occur?

A

in the pig

47
Q

What does it mean if the virus is attenuated, like in the influenza mist?

A

reduced virulence but the virus is still active

48
Q

How do cell junctions work?

A

Like holes. Both animal and plants have cell junctions that allow molecules to pass readily between adjacent cells without crossing plasma membrane.

49
Q

How does cell-cell recognition work?

A

Like a key and lock. Two cells in an animal may communicate by interaction between molecules protruding from their surfaces.

50
Q

What are two types of communication by direct contact between cells?

A

Cell Junctions & Cell-Cell Recognition

51
Q

What are two types of local signaling?

A

Paracrine Signaling and Synaptic Signaling

52
Q

a secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator into the extracellular fluid

A

paracrine signaling

53
Q

a nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse stimulating the target cell

A

synaptic signaling

54
Q

What are two types of long distance signaling?

A

Endocrine (hormonal) signaling & the Nervous System

55
Q

How does endocrine signaling work?

A

Specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into bodily fluids, often blood. Hormones virtually reach all cells but are bound only by some cells.

56
Q

Explain the three signaling components

A

Reception: receiving information from a signal molecule by a receptor. Transduction (Signal-Transduction Pathway): the movement of a signal from the outside to the inside which mostly has to do with the changing the shape of a protein. Response: activation of cellular responses.

57
Q

What are four types of signal receptors?

A

Doorbells: G-Protein, Tyrosine-Kinase, Ion-Channel. Intracellular Receptors.

58
Q

How many genes are in the human body? How many are G-Protein linked receptors?

A

Just under 20,000 genes in the human body. About 5% of those genes are used as G-Proetin Linked receptors.

59
Q

How do tyrosine-kinase receptors work?

A

Membrane of the cell receives a ligand and binds to the receptor tyrosine kinase proteins. 2 receptor proteins form a dimer. 6 ATP is dephosphorylated to activate tyrosine kinase regions to activate relay proteins that will lead to cellular responses.

60
Q

Where are ligand-gated channels used?

A

In the Nervous System

61
Q

How do ligand-gated channels work?

A

There is a change in the overall cell that leads to the opening/closing of channels. A signaling molecule (neurotransmitter/ligand) causes the gated channel to open and allow ions into the cell. A signal is sent from one neuron to the next by the opening/closing of gates. The ligand dissociates and the channel closes.

62
Q

How do G Protein systems work?

A

In an inactive form, the G-Protein linked receptor has nothing bound to it. In action, the signal molecule binds to the activated receptor, GTP becomes GDP and the activated G Protein connects to an enzyme and leads to a specific cellular response. (ATP can act on an enzyme and become cAMP which acts as a second messenger).

63
Q

What initiates signal transduction?

A

initiated by signal receptor complex

64
Q

transfer phosphate from ATP to protein

A

protein kinase

65
Q

remove phosphate from protein

A

protein phosphatases

66
Q

How is the signal amplified in signal transduction

A

amplified by the phosphorylation cascase/pathway because it adds more molecules

67
Q

Hormones often result in changes in ____

A

transcription

68
Q

substances created in one part of the body that illicit a response somewhere else

A

Hormones

69
Q

Where are hormone receptors located?

A

Plasma Membrane or Cell Nucleus

70
Q

How does a cell respond when a hormone connects to a receptor on the plasma membrane?

A

hormone binds to signal receptor and goes through signal transduction pathway and elicit a cytoplasmic response

71
Q

How does the cell respond when a hormone connects to the cell nucleus?

A

hormone binds to a signal recepto in the nucleus and actively moves into the cell

72
Q

What is homeostasis controlled by?

A

negative feedback loops

73
Q

What is the function of Erythropoietin (EPO)? Where is it produced?

A

raises red blood cell count

kidneys

74
Q

What is the function of insulin? Where is it produced?

A

lowers blood glucose

pancreas

75
Q

What is the function of glucagon? Where is it produced?

A

raises blood glucose

pancreas

76
Q

brings oxygenated blood and waste into the kidneys

A

renal artery

77
Q

located in the kidneys and acts as a filter to push waste out of the blood

A

nephrons

78
Q

takes deoxygenated blood and waste out of the kidneys and to the heart

A

renal vein

79
Q

What are the four steps of urine formation in the nephron?

A

Filtration: water, nutrients, and wastes are filtered from glomerular capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule of the nephron. Tubular Reabsorption: in the proximal tubule, most water and nutrients are reabsorbed into the blood. Tubular Secretion: in the distal tubule, additional wastes are actively secreted into the tubule from the blood. Concentration: in the collecting duct, additional water may leave, creating urine that is more concentrated than blood.

80
Q

coordinating the concentration of your blood depending on how much water you consume on a daily basis

A

hypothalamus and pituitary gland

81
Q

What are the two human kidney functions?

A

Homeostasis & Water Balance

82
Q

How do the kidneys balance water?

A

High levels of ADH increase the permeability of the nephron leading to more water being retained

83
Q

Where is ADH made and released?

A

Made by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland

84
Q

What is the body’s response to dehydration?

A

Receptors in the hypothalamus detect the low water content of blood and signal the posterior pituitary which releases ADH into the blood. ADH increases permeability of the distal tubule and collecting duct, allowing more water to be reabsorbed. Water is retained and yellow urine is produced.

85
Q

On a cellular level, how does ADH affect cells in the distal tubule and concentration duct?

A

ADH receptor activates the G protein which turns on the enzyme adenylyl cyclase which creates cAMP and turns on a series of messenger signaling molecules which lead to the creation of more aquaporin channels.

86
Q

How is the body’s red blood cell count regulated?

A

Oxygen deficiency stimulated erythropoietin (EPO) production by kidneys which stimulated red blood cell production in the bone marrow and causes a restored oxygen level.

87
Q

What is the life span of a red blood cell? Why is it so short?

A

90 days. Red blood cells don’t have nuclei so they will die out once the proteins die out

88
Q

How is high blood glucose regulated in the body?

A

An increase in glucose concentration stimulates the pancreas to release insulin which tells the body cells to take up/burn glucose or liver builds glycogen. Results in a decrease in blood glucose.

89
Q

How is low blood glucose regulated in the body?

A

A decrease in glucose stimulates the pancreas to release glucagon which tells the liver to break down glycogen. Results in an increase in blood glucose.

90
Q

What type of receptor is the insulin receptor IGF-1

A

receptor kinase

91
Q

What parts of the body does insulin act on?

A

liver, muscle, and fat

92
Q

What type of viruses is the lytic cycle specific to?

A

bacteriophages

93
Q

What does Tamiflu prevent?

A

It prevents neurominidase from letting the flu leave the infected cell and spread

94
Q

How do HIV cells find helper T cells?

A

Glycoproteins on HIV bind to CD4 on the helper T cells

95
Q

How much of the adult population currently lives with HIV?

A

Just under 1%

96
Q

Why does protease cleave viral proteins apart?

A

The proteins won’t work if they are pushed together.

97
Q

How long is someone with HIV asymptomatic?

A

8-12 years

98
Q

How is cAMP made?

A

adenynyl cyclase must be activated by an active G Protein

99
Q

What kind of receptor does ADH bind to?

A

G-Protein receptor

100
Q

What kind of receptor does EPO bind to?

A

Tyrosine-Kinase Receptor

101
Q

How do cells decide to become Red Blood Cells?

A

they produce a lot of hemoglobin

Biol 1201 (4 decks)

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