Exam 4 | Endocrine pt. 2

Question 1

What does the he Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonad (HPG) Axis do?

Answer 1

This pathway serves to regulate the production and release of the primary sex hormones in biological males (testosterone) and biological females (estrogen and progesterone), all of which are produced by the gonads.

Question 2

Describe the step by step process of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis.

Answer 2

1) The hypothalamus regularly produces Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH), which travels via the portal vein system to reach the anterior pituitary gland.
2) At the anterior pituitary gland, GnRH triggers the production and release of two hormones, Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which target the gonads in the periphery.
3) FSH and LH travel through the bloodstream to the gonads, where they then stimulate the production and release of testosterone (in biological males) and estrogen and (then) progesterone (in biological females).
4) Once a sufficient concentration (threshold) of these sex hormones have been produced and released in the periphery, they will participate in negative feedback (inhibition) of the production and release of FSH and LH (at the level of the anterior pituitary gland) and GnRH (at the level of the hypothalamus).

Question 3

What does the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) Axis do?

Answer 3

It serves to regulate production and secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), which regulate various physiological processes including brain function, cardiovascular function, bone structure and metabolism.

Question 4

Describe the step by step process for the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) Axis.

Answer 4

1) The hypothalamus regularly produces Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH), which travels via the portal vein system to reach the anterior pituitary gland.
2) At the anterior pituitary gland, TRH triggers the production and release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), which targets the thyroid gland.
3) TSH will travel through the bloodstream to the thyroid, where it will then stimulate the production and release of two peripheral thyroid hormones, Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4).
4) Once a sufficient concentration (threshold) of these thyroid hormones have been produced and released in the periphery, they will participate in negative feedback (inhibition) of the production and release of TSH (at the level of the anterior pituitary gland) and TRH (at the level of the hypothalamus).

Question 5

What does T3 and T4 do?

Answer 5

These hormones are produced from iodine derived from our diet (most commonly through the consumption of iodized salt), and regulate a variety of physiological processes including hair, skin and nail growth, weight and metabolism, mood and cognitive function, and much more.

Question 6

What does FSH and LH do for biological males?

Answer 6

In biological males, FSH stimulates the production of sperm and generally remains at constant levels after puberty. LH stimulates the production of testosterone, and thus varies throughout a 24-hour cycle

Question 7

What does FSH and LH do for biological females?

Answer 7

In biological females, FSH stimulates the production of eggs in the ovaries, and varies in concentration depending on the individual’s menstrual cycle.

LH stimulates the release of an egg from the ovaries during ovulation, and varies in concentration depending on the individual’s menstrual cycle.

Question 8

What do parathyroid glands do?

Answer 8

These glands produce a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH) which works to regulate blood Calcium (Ca2+) levels throughout the circadian (24-hour) cycle; it maintains blood calcium homeostasis

Question 9

What happens when blood calcium levels are high?

Answer 9

This triggers a decrease in the production of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH), which results in increased deposition of calcium onto the bone tissue (mediated by osteoblasts); make bones stronger

Question 10

What happens when blood calcium levels are low?

Answer 10

The increase in bone deposition ultimately triggers a decrease in blood calcium levels, which in turn causes an increase in the production of PTH by the parathyroid glands. This activates the osteoclasts, which then break down bone tissue to restore calcium to the blood and increase blood calcium levels.

Question 11

What does the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis do?

Answer 11

It regulates the production and secretion of cortisol from the adrenal cortex, which plays an essential role in the body’s stress response.

Question 12

Give a step by step process for the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis.

Answer 12

1) Typically, environmental stressors will trigger the hypothalamus to produce and secrete Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH), which travels via the portal vein system to reach the anterior pituitary gland.
2) At the anterior pituitary gland, CRH triggers the production and release of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), which targets the adrenal glands.
3) ACTH will travel through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, where it will then stimulate the production and release of cortisol, considered to be the quintessential “stress hormone”. Cortisol signals downstream to the immune system, with mixed results (in some ways, cortisol production can augment the function of the immune system, but excess cortisol production can lead to decreased immune function, hence why college students are more prone to coming down with a cold or flu at the height of final exam season).
4) Once a sufficient concentration (threshold) of cortisol has been produced and released in the periphery, it will signal via negative feedback (inhibition) back to the hypothalamus to reduce the production of CRH.

Question 13

What happens in cases of chronic stress?

Answer 13

In cases of chronic stress, one’s tolerance for endogenous cortisol may increase, affecting this negative feedback loop by reducing the level of inhibition on the hypothalamus (becoming weaker), leading to tonically higher levels of cortisol. Cortisol levels can be measured via blood tests, as well as through saliva samples.

Question 14

Who are more effected by thyroid diseases?

Answer 14

Conditions that affect the thyroid gland, biological females are much more prone to experiencing either hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, depending upon the balance of the sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone AND testosterone) circulating in the body at any given moment in time.

Question 15

What is hypothyroidism?

Answer 15

Hypothyroid Disease (hypothyroidism) is characterized by an inability of the thyroid to produce sufficient levels of T3 and T4 to maintain metabolic homeostasis.

Question 16

What are some symptoms of hypothyroidism?

Answer 16

Cold intolerance
Dry hair
Puffy face
Goiter
Slower heartbeat (bradycardia)
Weight gain
Constipation
Fertility problems/ infertility
Irregular menstrual cycle

Question 17

How do you treat hypothyroidism?

Answer 17

The most common treatment for hypothyroidism is pharmacological in nature (oral medication of synthetic thyroid hormone supplements).

Question 18

What is hyperthyroidism?

Answer 18

Hyperthyroid Disease (hyperthyroidism) is characterized by an overproduction of T3 and T4, leading to a myriad of metabolic and other issues.

Question 19

What are symptoms for hyperthyroidism?

Answer 19

Heat intolerance
Hair loss
Bulging eyes
Goiter
Rapid heartbeat (tachycardia)
Weight loss
Diarrhea
Infrequent periods (menses)

Question 20

How do you treat hyperthyroidism?

Answer 20

The most common treatments for hyperthyroidism include ingestion of radioactive iodine (a form of pharmacological radiation therapy), oral medications, and in severe cases, surgery.

Question 21

What is goiter?

Answer 21

Goiter is a relatively rare condition (in developed conditions) that results from insufficient iodine consumption from one’s diet. Lack of iodine, which is a necessary chemical substrate for the production of thyroid hormones, results in swelling of the thyroid gland and over time, the development of nodules on the surface of the thyroid. Depending on the severity, this swelling may be dramatic and easily visible from outside the body.

Question 22

How do you treat goiter?

Answer 22

It is not uncommon for patients with goiter to be prescribed radioactive iodine to both, supplement the lack of iodine as well as serve as a form of radiation therapy to destroy the nodules and reduce the swelling of the gland.

In more severe cases, surgery may be necessary to reduce swelling and restore normal thyroid function.

Question 23

What roles does the liver serve?

Answer 23

The liver is one of the most essential accessory organs in the digestive system. It plays an important role in processing drugs and other toxic chemicals that enter the body, but it also is the site of storage of glucose in the form of glycogen (glucogenosis).

Question 24

When is glycogen released from the liver?

Answer 24

When cells in the body (specifically skeletal muscle cells and neurons) require energy, the liver will break down glycogen to release glucose into the bloodstream

Question 25

What is glycogen?

Answer 25

Glycogen is a type of polysaccharide (complex carb) that is found in animal cells, and consists of many individual glucose molecules bound together

Question 26

What causes the liver to build up or break down glycogen from glucose?

Answer 26

The pancreas

Question 27

What’s the role of the pancreas?

Answer 27

This is an accessory gland in the digestive system that produces 2 hormones (insulin & glucagon) which work to maintain a specific threshold of blood glucose throughout a 24-hour cycle

Question 28

What’s insulin?

Answer 28

When blood glucose rises (typically after a meal), the pancreas will release insulin to encourage the liver to take in more glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen, effectively reducing one’s blood glucose.

Question 29

What’s glucagon?

Answer 29

When blood glucose drops (typically when one has not eaten for an extended period of time), the pancreas will release glucagon to encourage the liver to break down glycogen so that glucose molecules can be released into the blood, effectively raising one’s blood glucose.

Question 30

What happens when the pancreas is unable to produce one or more of these hormones?

Answer 30

An individual would be diagnosed with a form of diabetes mellitus which is a class of related disorders affecting the pancreas and subsequently, blood sugar

Question 31

What kind of feedback loop do insulin and glucagon follow?

Answer 31

Insulin and glucagon form a negative feedback loop that works to maintain blood glucose homeostasis.

Question 32

What’s type 1 diabetes?

Answer 32

In the case of Type I diabetes, the pancreas is not able to produce enough insulin to effectively lower one’s blood sugar, and thus, individuals must take supplemental insulin in order to manage their blood glucose levels on a daily basis. This form of diabetes is more rare compared to other forms, and is usually genetic (i.e. not necessarily related to one’s diet).

Question 33

What’s type 2 diabetes?

Answer 33

Typically life-style related and occurs when the body has developed a high tolerance to insulin