Exam 4: Digestive & Reproductive Flashcards

Question

The Musculature of the Scrotum

Answer 1

Cremaster: Contracts in response to cold, drawing the testes upward toward the body Dartos Fascia: Wrinkles the scrotum to minimize the surface area in contact with the cold

Answer 2

Warm blood flowing into the testes exchanges heat with the colder venous blood. The temperature drops 1.5-2.5 degrees C before reaching the testes. This allows for the testes to be at the optimal temperature for sperm production

Answer 3

Duct of the Epididymis: Site of sperm maturation & storage. If not ejaculated, they disintegrate and are reabsorbed by the epididymis Ductus Deferens: A long muscular tube passing from the scrotum through the inguinal canal to the posterior surface of the bladder. At the end, it connects with the duct of the seminal vesicle. NO sperm production or storage, just transportation Ejaculatory Duct: A short duct that passes through the prostate and empties into the urethra

Answer 4

It takes roughly 18 hours to make new sperm and fill the epididymis

Answer 5

Cutting of the Vas Deferens which prevents sperm from reaching the urethra or exiting the body

Answer 6

60% comes from the seminal vesicles (sperm) 30% comes from the prostate (a milky substance that activates sperm) 10% comes from the bulbourethral glands (lubricant that neutralizes acidic urine and the acidic nature of the vaginal canal)

Answer 7

The substance produced by the seminal vesicles is high in sugar. The sperm metabolizes this sugar to produce ATP. The ATP is then used to allow sperm movement.

Answer 8

Corpus Cavernosum: Fills with blood to cause an erection Corpus Spongiosum: Fills with blood to keep the urethra open. When blood isn't present, the tissue is like a deflated balloon, closing the urethra to semen flow.

Answer 9

The reproductive system doesn't become active in boys until 10-12 y.o. and 8-10 y.o. in girls

Answer 10

The period from the onset of gonadotropin secretion and reproductive development to when a person attains full adult height

Answer 11

The first few years of adolescence, until the first menstrual period in girls or the first ejaculation of viable sperm in boys Typically around 14 in boys and 12 in girls

Answer 12

Growth of sex organs (penis, testes, scrotum, ducts, glands) Testosterone stimulates generalized body growth (limbs elongate, muscle mass increases, larynx enlarges) Erythropoiesis, Basal Metabolic Rate, & Appetite increase Pubic hair, axillary hair, & facial hair develop in response to Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Sperm production & libido are stimulated

Answer 13

GnRH is released from the Hypothalamus at a higher rate with maturity GnRH stimulates the Anterior Pituitary to release Follicle Stimulating Hormone & Luteinizing Hormone FSH activates Androgen-Binding Proteins within Nurse Cells LH affects interstitial cells ABP causes cells to "listen" to testosterone Interstitial Cells release Testosterone Testosterone, when combined with ABP, induces spermatogenesis Spermatogenic Cells produce Inhibin, which inhibits the release of FSH & LH, reducing Testosterone levels Too much Testosterone inhibits the Ant. Pituitary from releasing FSH and LH until Testosterone is low enough to maintain homeostasis

Answer 14

Testosterone secretion declines with age. Peak secretion is at age 20 and secretion is 1/5 of that value by age 80. This occurs due to the decline in the number and activity of interstitial endocrine cells. Andropause: Male climacteric. A period of declining reproductive function starting in the 50s The age-related drop in Testosterone and inhibin triggers a rise in FSH & LH, potentially causing mood swings and hot flashes

Answer 15

Results in 4 unique daughter cells Before Prophase I, there is a diploid cell with 92 chromosomes Prophase I: Crossing Over produced genetic variability (beneficial for preventing diseases) Metaphase I: Chromosomes are lined up along the center Anaphase I: Chromosomes are pulled apart Telophase I: 2 unique daughter cells are formed, each being haploid Prophase II: Chromosomes are housed in their cells Metaphase II: Chromosomes align along the center Anaphase II: Chromosomes are pulled apart, leaving only sister chromatids Telophase II: 4 unique haploid cells are produced, each with single-stranded chromosomes

Answer 16

Type A spermatogonia go through Mitosis to make more diploid cells Type B spermatogonia go through Meiosis I & II

Answer 17

The process that takes place after Meiosis II has been completed. It is the process where sperm develop tails

Answer 18

Once primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis, they become genetically different and require protection from the immune system The primary spermatocyte moves toward the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and a tight junction forms between the nurse cells behind it These tight junctions protect the spermatocytes from being attacked by the immune system (Blood-Testis Barrier)

Answer 19

Acrosome: During development, it wraps around the nucleus and forms a tip. It has chemical receptors that can "smell" its way to the eggs. Contains enzymes that penetrate the egg Head: The pear-shaped leading portion of the sperm that houses the nucleus and acrosome. Midpiece: A thicker cylindrical portion of the tail that houses the mitochondria Mitochondria: Metabolize sugars from the substance produced by the seminal vesicles, forming ATP Flagellum: The tail of the sperm that allows for mobility

Answer 20

Normal Sperm Count 50-120 million/mL Infertility occurs with a count lower than 20-25 million/mL

Answer 21

Two requirements for the movement of sperm are elevated pH and an energy source The substance from the prostate buffers vaginal acidity from 3.5 to 7.5 pH The prostate provides fructose & other sugars to the mitochondria of sperm for ATP production The substance from the seminal vesicles also produces prostaglandins, which thin the mucus of the cervical canal and stimulate waves of contractions

Answer 22

Sexual stimulation triggers a spike in nitric oxide Nitric oxide leads to the activation of cGMP cGMP increases blood flow to the erectile tissue cGMP will degrade over time due to the presence of PDE5, leading to the erection going away Viagra inhibits the actions of PDE5, allowing the erection to occur and remain

Answer 23

STDs are only effective and produce symptoms when large amounts of pathogens are present Individuals can be carriers yet show no signs or symptoms, as their body has not yet recognized the pathogen

Answer 24

Chlamydia: may cause urethral discharge and testicular pain Gonorrhea: pain & pus discharge; may result in sterility from pelvic inflammatory disease Syphilis: hard lesions (chancres) at the site of infection

Answer 25

Genital Herpes: The most common STD in the US, results in blisters and pain Genital Warts: Warts on the perineal region, cervix, & anus caused by HPV Hepatitis B & C: Inflammatory liver disease

Answer 26

Female gonads that produce egg cells (ova) & sex hormones Outer cortex where germ cells develop The inner medulla is occupied by major arteries & veins Each egg develops in its own fluid-filled follicle

Answer 27

AKA Oviducts or Fallopian Tubes, they are canals roughly 10 cm long from the ovaries to the uterus They are muscular tubes lined with ciliated cells and are highly folded into longitudinal ridges

Answer 28

Class I: Mild Dysplasia Class II: Biopsy Required Class III: Results from Biopsy may call for radiation therapy or hysterectomy

Answer 29

Perimetrium: External Serosa Layer Myometrium: Middle Muscular Layer Endometrium: Inner Mucosa

Answer 30

The muscular layer that constitutes most of the uterine wall Made of mostly smooth muscle Produces labor contractions to expel the fetus More fibrous near the cervix

Answer 31

Functional Layer: Superficial half of the endometrium that is shed with each menstrual cycle Basal Layer: Deep half of the endometrium that stays behind to regenerate a new functional layer after each menstrual cycle During pregnancy, the endometrium is the site of attachment for the embryo and forms the maternal part of the placenta for fetal nourishment

Answer 32

Undergoes metaplasia: During childhood, the tissue is simple cuboidal and changes to stratified squamous after puberty Bacteria in the epithelium ferment glycogen to produce the acidic pH of the vagina. This acidic nature inhibits the growth of pathogens The epithelium has antigen-presenting dendritic cells

Answer 33

Collectively called the vulva or pudendum Mons Pubis: the mound of fat over the pubic symphysis that bears most of the pubic hair Labia Majora: A pair of thick folds of skin and adipose tissue inferior to the mons. Composed of the same tissue as the scrotum Labia Minora: Thin, hairless folds medial to the labia major Clitoris: Erectile sensory organ, the primary center for sexual stimulation Vestibular Bulbs: Erectile tissue deep to the labia major Greater & Lesser Vestibular & Paraurethral Glands open into the Vestibule for Lubrication

Answer 34

Develops during pregnancy and remains active in the lactating breast Atrophies when a woman ceases to nurse The areolar nerve fibers trigger the milk ejection reflex

Answer 35

A leading cause of female mortality, breast cancer occurs in 1 of 8-9 women Tumors begin with cells from mammary ducts and may metastasize by mammary & axillary lymphatics Most breast cancer is hereditary, though the BRCA1 & 2 genes contribute to some cases. Some cases are also stimulated by estrogen

Answer 36

Lumpectomy: Removal of the tumor only Simple Mastectomy: Removal of breast tissue only or sometimes breast tissue and some axillary lymph nodes Radial Mastectomy: Removal of the breast, underlying muscle, fascia, and lymph nodes Surgery is followed by radiation or chemotherapy

Answer 37

Puberty begins at age 8-10 for most US girls Triggered by rising levels of GnRH, stimulating the Ant. Pituitary to secrete FSH & LH

Answer 38

GnRH stimulates the secretion of FSH & LH FSH stimulates ovarian follicles Ovarian Follicles begin to secrete estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, & a small amount of androgen

Answer 39

Thelarche: Breast development triggered by estrogen, progesterone, & prolactin Pubarche: Pubic & axillary hair development along with their sebaceous & axillary glands. This change is stimulated by androgens Menarche: The first menstrual period stimulated by gonadotropin secretion. Leptin from body fat stimulates gonadotropin secretion; if body fat or leptin levels drop, so does gonadotropin, leading to a halt in the menstrual cycle

Answer 40

Stimulates the growth of ovaries & secondary sex organs Stimulates growth hormone secretion Stimulates fat deposition Suppresses FSH & LH secretion

Answer 41

Acts on the uterus to prepare it for possible pregnancy Suppresses FSH & LH secretion

Answer 42

The development of a single-cell egg

Answer 43

The sequence of events from fertilization to giving birth and returning to fertility

Answer 44

The sequence of events that recur every month when pregnancy doesn't intervene Consists of both the Ovarian & Menstrual Cycles

Answer 45

Female germ cells arise from the yolk sac & colonize the gonadal ridges during the first 5-6 weeks of development These cells differentiate into oogonia & multiply until the 5th month (roughly 6-7 million cells are produced) Most oocytes degenerate by the time a girl is born By puberty, 200,000 oocytes remain Meiosis occurs early on in development and then stops

Answer 46

At birth, only primary oocytes are present in the body. FSH stimulates roughly 24 oocytes to complete meiosis I each month After meiosis I, a secondary oocyte and the first polar body are produced If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it dies. If it is fertilized, the secondary oocyte goes through meiosis II, producing an ovum and the second polar body Shortly after completing meiosis II, the ovum DNA is joined with the sperm DNA to form a zygote Sometimes the polar bodies will divide before dying, which is where the 4 daughter cells come from

Answer 47

Primordial Follicles are produced during fetal development In adolescence, the primary follicles begin to have granulosa cells grow around the outside of the oocyte After more development, the zona pellucida (extracellular coat) forms between the granulosa cells and the oocyte, becoming the secondary follicle The zona pellucida grows further, forming the antrum, a larger fluid-filled layer between the tunica interna and oocyte. This is the tertiary follicle During ovulation, the now-mature follicle bursts, sending the oocyte into the uterine tube. The follicle wall remains in the ovary, becoming the corpus luteum

Answer 48

Follicular Phase: Period of follicle growth (days 1-14) where the selected follicle(s) grow Ovulation occurs mid-cycle, releasing the secondary oocyte from the ovary Luteal Phase: Period of corpus luteum activity (days 14 - 28)

Answer 49

A fluid-filled pocket in the middle of the follicle which helps with the bursting of the follicle during ovulation. A spike in LH causes the antrum to swell, leading to this burst

Answer 50

Hypothalamus Pituitary Ovaries: The ovaries can also inhibit the hormones from the hypothalamus & pituitary via feedback control Uterus

Answer 51

Before the start of menstruation, the Ant. Pituitary is secreting a lot of FSH, which is "choosing" the next oocyte Once an oocyte or two is selected, FSH is suppressed by the follicle to prevent many oocytes from developing at once Once the follicle matures, it releases higher levels of estradiol. At a certain point, the estradiol causes a spike in LH, which in turn triggers the swelling and bursting of the follicle's antrum After ovulation, the corpus luteum remains for 7-8 days, secreting hormones to keep FSH and LH low to allow for implantation If no implantation occurs, FSH rises again

Answer 52

The follicular phase occurs over the first 14 days after menstruation FSH stimulates follicles to grow and secrete estradiol The chosen (dominant) follicle becomes increasingly sensitive to FSH, LH, & Estradiol The follicle, as it matures, secretes some estradiol, which stimulates the Ant. Pituitary to release more LH & less FSH, leading to ovulation LH also causes the primary oocyte to complete meiosis I

Answer 53

Cervical mucus becomes thinner and more stretchy Resting body temperature rises by 0.4-0.6 degrees F Mittelschmerz: Twinges of pain at the time of ovulation The best time for conception is within 24 hours of these signs

Answer 54

The luteal phase occurs through days 15-28 after the onset of menstruation LH stimulates the corpus luteum to grow and secrete rising levels of estradiol & progesterone Progesterone suppresses FSH and prepares the uterus for implantation FSH & LH secretion declines over the rest of the cycle If fertilization occurs, the resulting embryo releases chemicals to keep the corpus luteum from shrinking When involution occurs, progesterone and inhibin levels drop, resulting in FSH levels rising again

Answer 55

Proliferative Phase: Rebuilding of the Functional Layer Secretory Phase: Thickening of the Endometrium caused by Progesterone Premenstrual Phase: Endometrial Degeneration Menstrual Phase: Discharge of Menstrual Fluid from the Vagina

Answer 56

A new cohort of follicles develops, secreting more estrogen Estrogen stimulates mitosis in the basal layer as well as regrowth of blood vessels, both of which act to regenerate the functional layer

Answer 57

Thickening of the endometrium due to secretions & fluid buildup Endometrial glands secrete glycogen (sugar) for the potential embryo

Answer 58

The corpus luteum atrophies, causing endometrial ischemia (interrupting blood flow) where the vessels are pinched off before the functional layer Causes tissue necrosis & menstrual cramps

Answer 59

Discharge of menstrual fluid from the vagina The first day of discharge is day 1 of the new cycle

Answer 60

Just before ovulation, during the proliferative phase, estradiol spikes greatly, and progesterone slightly After ovulation, the secretory phase begins. Here, estradiol drops due to the bursting of the follicle. Progesterone spikes, keeping estradiol from falling too low. In this phase, nutrition is added to the endometrium, causing the layer to thicken. If no implantation occurs, the endometrium is killed and the corpus luteum shrinks, causing progesterone and estradiol levels to fall The falling off of estradiol and progesterone causes the beginning of a new menstrual cycle

Answer 61

If fertilization occurs, implantation will sometimes result. When implantation occurs, the embryo will enter the grooves of the endometrium and get covered up

Answer 62

The growth of endometrial tissue outside of the uterus Growth is often on the peritoneum of the pelvic cavity or on the surface of the ovary Occurs in 6-10% of women Causes pain and sometimes infertility Believed to result from retrograde menstruation: backward flow of menstrual fluid through the uterine tubes

Answer 63

Unstimulated Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution

Answer 64

The uterus tilts forward over the urinary bladder The vagina is relatively narrow The labia minora is retracted

Answer 65

The uterus stands more superiorly with the inner end of the vagina dilated, it is no longer laying against the bladder The labia minora becomes vasocongested, extending beyond the labia major The labia minora and vaginal mucosa become red/violet due to hyperemia Vaginal transudate moistens the vagina & vestibule

Answer 66

The uterus begins tenting: moving up and down into the vaginal canal to contact any potential semen The orgasmic platform (lower 1/3) of the vagina constricts the penis The clitoris is engorged and its glans is withdrawn beneath the prepuce

Answer 67

The orgasmic platform contracts rhythmically The cervix may dip into the pool of semen The uterus exhibits peristaltic contractions Anal & urinary sphincters constrict

Answer 68

The uterus returns to its original position The orgasmic platform relaxes The inner end of the vagina constricts & returns to its original dimensions

Answer 69

An intense sensation that spreads from the clitoris through the pelvis Pelvic throbbing & a spreading sensation of warmth The pelvic platform gives 3-5 strong contractions The cervix plunges spasmodically into the vagina Involuntary pelvic thrusts may occur late in the plateau phase Paraurethral glands sometimes expel copious fluid (female ejaculation)

Answer 70

Pregnancy which lasts an average of 266 days from conception to childbirth Birth is predicted to be 280 days from the last menstrual period

Answer 71

Weeks 1-2: Conceptus Weeks 3-8: Embryo Weeks 9-12: Fetus

Answer 72

The umbilical cord & placenta show up around week 9, starting relatively small

Answer 73

The oocyte is viable for 12-24 hours Sperm is viable 24-48 hours after ejaculation For fertilization to occur, coitus must occur no more than 2 days before or 24 hours after ovulation

Answer 74

Leaks out of the vagina immediately after deposition Destroyed by the acidic vaginal environment Fail to make it through the cervix Dispersed into the uterine cavity via peristaltic contractions or destroyed by phagocytes Few (100-1000) reach the uterine tubes

Answer 75

Cortical Reaction: Once bound to the oocyte membrane, the sperm fuses to it, allowing the contents of the sperm to enter the egg. Upon entry of a sperm (Not yet jointed DNA), Ca2+ surges from the ER of the oocyte, causing a cortical reaction - Cortical granules release enzymes (Zonal Inhibiting Proteins/ZIPs) - ZIPs destroy sperm receptors - Spilled fluid binds water and swells, detaching other sperm

Answer 76

Sperm binds to the ZP3 molecules in the zona pellucida, causing a rise in Ca2+ levels in the sperm This rise in Ca2+ triggers the acrosomal reaction: burrowing of sperm through the membrane surrounding an oocyte Acrosomal Reaction: Acrosomal enzymes digest holes through the zona pellucida, clearing a path to the oocyte membrane The sperm forms an acrosomal process, binding the sperm to the oocyte receptors

Answer 77

Once the Ca2+ surge occurs in the secondary oocyte, it begins meiosis II, resulting in an ovum and second polar body Once the ovum is present, the sperm and ovum nuclei swell and approach each other until a mitotic spindle forms between them The chromosomes then intermix and fertilization is accomplished.

Answer 78

After meiosis I, the primary oocyte has 46 chromosomes, if DNA combination occurred here, there would be too many chromosomes and the sperm DNA would not be able to combine

Answer 79

Primarily in the fallopian tube

Answer 80

Zygotes go through repeated MITOSIS As it is growing, it is moving through the fallopian tube toward the uterus After 3 days of growth, it becomes a Morula: a bunch of cells that form a ball. It has no differentiation and no "parts" After 4 days, it becomes an early blastocyst: the ball hollows out, fills with fluid, and "hatches" from the zona pellucida After 7 days, it becomes an implanting blastocyst: the hollow ball begins to differentiate

Answer 81

Trophoblast Layer: A layer on the outer ring of the blastocyst that produces Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) which stimulates the growth of the corpus luteum as well as placenta formation Zona Pellucida: The outer "shell" that degenerates after the blastocyst matures

Answer 82

Once in the grooves of the uterine wall, the blastocyst is covered by endometrial cells, protecting it and providing nutrients Implantation is completed by day 12

Answer 83

These hormones are secreted by the corpus luteum until the placenta takes over after involution Estrogen: Increases 30x normal by the end of gestation, secreted by the corpus luteum and then the placenta, causes tissue growth in the fetus and mother Progesterone: Secreted by the corpus luteum and then the placenta, suppresses FSH & LH as well as uterine contractions, prevents premature childbirth and menstruation Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG): Secreted by the blastocyst & the placenta, detectable in urine 8-9 days after conception, stimulates the growth of the corpus luteum Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin

Answer 84

The pituitary gland grows about 50% larger during pregnancy, leading to an elevated level of thyrotropin, prolactin, & ACTH The thyroid gland grows about 50% larger, increasing the metabolic rate of the mother and fetus Parathyroid glands enlarge, increasing osteoclast activity to build the bones of the baby Aldosterone secretion rises, increasing Na+ reabsorption, keeping it in the body to supply the baby

Answer 85

For the first 4 weeks after ovulation, estradiol is produced with progesterone coming into play around week 2 Around week 4, HCG is released in great quantity, keeping the corpus luteum going with estradiol and progesterone secretion. Estradiol & Progesterone levels slowly rise for the next few weeks. Once the corpus luteum goes through involution, HCG levels decrease drastically as the placenta takes over. Once the placenta has taken over, Estradiol & Progesterone levels rise greatly and HCG levels off but does not stop being produced. Because the placenta has taken over, the corpus luteum dies off

Answer 86

Morning Sickness: Nausea, especially when waking up, is thought to occur due to the rapidly rising hormone levels Constipation & Heartburn: Potentially caused by reduced intestinal motility and pressure on the stomach causing reflux of gastric contents

Answer 87

The pituitary gland increases in size & function causing the thyroid to increase in size and function. This increases metabolic function Basal Metabolic Rate increases by about 15% Appetite may be strongly stimulated

Answer 88

The body is in demand of higher protein, iron, calcium, and phosphates A pregnant woman needs extra iron to support hers and the baby's oxygen & hemoglobin requirements Vitamin K is given late in pregnancy and to newborns to promote prothrombin synthesis Vitamin D supplements help calcium absorption which is required to build bones Folic Acid supplementation reduces the risk of neurological fetal disorders

Answer 89

The mother's blood volume rises about 30% during pregnancy (about 1 L more than normal) This occurs due to fluid retention and hemopoiesis (supplying the baby with blood & nutrients) Cardiac output rises 30-40% above normal by week 27 because the blood has to pump through the mother and baby

Answer 90

Tidal Volume & minute ventilation increase by about 40%. Deeper breaths mean more oxygen per breath to meet the increased demands Oxygen requirements rise due to increased metabolic rate and the needs of the fetus Low CO2 in the mother's blood promotes CO2 diffusion from the fetus Within the last month of the pregnancy, breathing will become easier due to pelvic expansion & the baby dropping lower

Answer 91

Aldosterone increases to save Na+ for the baby GFR increases by 50% and urine output is slightly elevated The pregnant uterus compresses the bladder causing frequent urination

Answer 92

The skin grows to accommodate the expansion of the abdomen & breasts, resulting in stretch marks Added fat deposition occurs in the hips & thighs Melanocyte activity increases in some areas, resulting in darkening of the areolae

Answer 93

Relatively weak contractions of the uterus that strengthen late in pregnancy and cause false labor Contractions transform suddenly into powerful labor contractions

Answer 94

Progesterone inhibits uterine contractions and levels start to decline after 6 months Progesterone can sometimes be given in scenarios of early labor prevention

Answer 95

Estradiol stimulates uterine contractions and levels continue to rise throughout pregnancy

Answer 96

In the last few weeks of pregnancy, the fetus secretes cortisol, stimulating the placenta to secrete more estrogen Estrogen induces oxytocin receptors on the uterus Oxytocin from the fetus & the mother's posterior pituitary stimulate the uterus to contract Oxytocin also stimulates the placenta to make prostaglandins, which stimulate more vigorous contractions of the uterus as well as the production of more prostaglandins The uterine contractions have a positive feedback relationship with the posterior pituitary, releasing more oxytocin and causing more contractions

Answer 97

Labor is induced by the stretching of the cervix Cervical stretching stimulates oxytocin secretion Oxytocin stimulates contractions of the uterus Uterine contractions stimulate more cervical stretching

Answer 98

Muscles become deprived of blood due to the long periods of contraction. This causes a build-up of Lactic Acid Stretching pain is caused by an unusually large head/brain of the infant or the narrow pelvic outlet

Answer 99

Early Dilation: The cervix widens slowly over 6-12 hours while the uterus slowly increases contractions. The dilation of the cervix can give doctors an estimate of how close the mother is to birth Late Dilation: The cervix is much wider, allowing for the baby to exit

Answer 100

This stage occurs from when the mother is at full dilation until the baby is born Contractions occur every 2-3 minutes The baby will be crowning: the head is sticking through The umbilical cord is typically oriented on the top of the uterus

Answer 101

The placenta detaches, usually with a slight tug on the umbilical cord Sometimes parts of the placenta will remain in the uterus, warranting a surgical operation to get those pieces out otherwise the placenta can become toxic

Answer 102

The first 6 weeks postpartum During this time, the mother's anatomy & physiology stabilize, and reproductive organs return nearly to their pre-pregnancy state Breastfeeding promotes the involution of the uterus Breastfeeding suppresses estrogen secretion, making the uterus more flaccid Breastfeeding also stimulates oxytocin secretion, which causes the myometrium to contract and firm up the uterus sooner

Answer 103

The baby will have central acidosis (High CO2 concentration) from not breathing. This will trigger the respiratory control centers to cause the first inspiration The first breath is the hardest one will ever take because the airways are small and the lungs are collapsed Surfactant in the alveolar fluid helps to reduce surface tension Respiratory rate is typically 45 breaths per minute for the first two weeks then slowly declines (physiologically declines through chest-to-chest contact)

Answer 104

The synthesis & ejection of milk through the mammary glands Breasts stimulated by a nursing infant or mechanical device will not stop producing milk

Answer 105

High estrogen levels during pregnancy cause the ducts of the mammary glands to grow and branch Progesterone stimulates the budding & development of acini at the ends of the ducts

Answer 106

Similar to breast milk in protein and lactose, but contains 1/3 less fat This is the sole nutrition source for the first 1-3 days after birth until milk is produced It is cloudy & yellow It contains IgA to protect the baby from gastroenteritis

Answer 107

Breastfeeding suppresses hormone levels, keeping another fertilization/implantation from happening This provides a natural means of spacing births

Answer 108

Mechanoreceptors in the nipples are stimulated by the suckling infant, sending afferent impulses to the hypothalamus The hypothalamus sends efferent impulses to the posterior pituitary, causing a release of oxytocin Oxytocin stimulates myoepithelial cells in the breasts to contract Alveolar glands respond to these contractions by releasing milk through the ducts of the nipples Milk being released causes the baby to continue suckling, further stimulating and completing the positive feedback loop

Answer 109

Mechanoreceptors in the nipples are stimulated by the suckling infant, sending afferent impulses to the hypothalamus The afferent impulses inhibit hypothalamic neurons that release dopamine and cause the hypothalamus to release Prolactin Releasing Factors (PRF) into the portal circulation The anterior pituitary secretes prolactin to the blood Prolactin targets the lactiferous glands in the breasts Lactiferous glands increase their milk production

Answer 110

When the baby is first born, mothers feed it every 2 hours or so The suckling of the baby causes prolactin to surge 10-20x the normal level for about an hour By spreading out the time between feeding, prolactin spikes will also become less frequent and less intense

Answer 111

Fats & Irons are easily absorbed It contains beneficial chemicals (IgA, Complement proteins, Lysozyme, Interferons, & Lactoperoxidase) that build the non-learning immune system of the baby Interleukins & prostaglandins prevent overzealous inflammatory responses (the baby will be less likely to have allergic reactions) It has a natural laxative effect, helping to eliminate bile-rich meconium and prevent jaundice It encourages bacterial colonization of the large intestine

Answer 112

A pill that is taken, dosing the body with estrogen and progestin, inhibiting FSH & LH and preventing the ovarian follicle from maturing The morning-after pill is a very high dose of estrogen and progestin that induces menstruation