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Biol 233 > Exam 2: Lymphatic & Respiratory > Flashcards

Exam 2: Lymphatic & Respiratory Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the Lymphatic System

A

Fluid Recovery
Immunity

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2
Q

Lymph

A

Clear, colorless recovered fluid. It is similar to blood plasma but low in protein

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3
Q

Lymphatic Capillaries

A

Microscopic vessels that penetrate nearly every tissue of the body, picking up fluid near capillaries and tissues and sending it back to the lymph vessels.

Fluid enters the capillaries through small openings in the endothelium

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4
Q

How do valves in the lymphatic vessel endothelium function?

A

The valve-like flaps in the lumen open when interstitial fluid pressure is high, allowing fluid to flow in. They close when pressure is low.

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5
Q

Where are most lymph nodes found?

A

Areas where parts of the body connect
Ex. Elbow, groin, armpit, neck, knee, etc.

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6
Q

Why do lymph nodes become swollen?

A

When an infection is present, fluid flow in the lymph nodes is greater in an attempt to filter the fluid more

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7
Q

What are the primary methods of lymphatic flow? (3)

A

Respiratory Pump - Similar to the venous return chest pump

Muscular Pump - Skeletal muscles “massage” lymph nodes, pushing fluid back toward the heart

Gravity - Fluid in the lymphatic vessels above the heart flows downward

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8
Q

Natural Killer Cells

A

Large lymphocytes that patrol the body for pathogens or diseased cells

Upon recognition of an enemy cell, the NK cell binds to it and releases perforins, which polymerize a ring in the plasma membrane.

They pump protein-degrading granzymes into the cell, inducing apoptosis

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9
Q

T Lymphocytes (T cells)

A

Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus and depend on thymic hormones

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10
Q

B Lymphocytes (B cells)

A

Lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow and turn into plasma cells

They make A & B antibodies

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11
Q

Macrophages

A

Large, avidly phagocytotic cells of the connective tissues

They are Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) that alert the immune system

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12
Q

Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)

A

Cells that phagocytize debris and process the foreign matter. The antigens of the foreign cells are then presented on the outside of the cell

Macrophages and Dendritic Cells are APCs

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13
Q

Dendritic Cells

A

Branched, mobile APCs found in the epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphoid organs.
They alert the immune system to pathogens that have breached the body’s surface, engulfing foreign matter and migrating to lymph nodes to activate immune responses

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14
Q

Primary Lymphatic Organs

A

Red Bone Marrow - B cell maturation and immunocompetence

Thymus - T cell maturation and immunocompetence

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15
Q

Secondary Lymphatic Organs

A

Lymph Nodes
Tonsils
Spleen

Immunocompetent cells populate these tissues

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16
Q

Lymph Node Structure

A

Cortex - Comprised of the Subscapular Sinuses and the Lymphatic Nodules

Inner Medulla - Extends to the surface at the hilum

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17
Q

What cells are found in the Subscapular Sinuses?

A

Macrophages & Dendritic Cells (APCs)

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18
Q

What cells are found in the Lymphatic Nodule?

A

T cells that respond to the markers found on the APCs from the subscapular sinuses

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19
Q

What cells are found in the Inner Medulla?

A

B & T cells communicate with T cells from the lymphatic nodules; B cells become plasma cells and begin to produce antibodies

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20
Q

Tonsils

A

Lymphatic Tissue located near the pharynx that is full of WBCs. When substances come into contact with the tonsils, the immune system is alerted

Pharyngeal, Palatine, and Lingual

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21
Q

Spleen

A

The body’s largest lymphatic organ whose main function is to digest RBCs.

Red Pulp - Sinuses filled with RBCs

White Pulp - Contains lymphocytes (T & B) and macrophages that monitor the blood for foreign antigens

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22
Q

Metastasis

A

Cancer cells break free from their original tumors and travel to other sites where new tumors are established

Metastasizing cells easily enter lymphatic vessels and tend to lodge in the lymph nodes, multiplying and eventually destroying the node

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23
Q

First Line of Defense

A

Epithelial Barriers (skin & mucous membranes)

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24
Q

Second Line of Defense

A

Interior, non-learning defense (leukocytes, macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, NKCs, fever, inflammation)

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25
Q

Third Line of Defense

A

Adaptive Immunity. Mechanisms that defeat a pathogen and leave the body with a memory of it

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26
Q

Innate Defenses

A

Defense mechanisms that one is born with, they have no memory and guard against a broad range of pathogens. There are three kinds:

Protective Proteins

Protective Cells

Protective Processes

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27
Q

Adaptive Immunity

A

A mechanism through which the body develops separate immunity to each pathogen (specific)

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28
Q

Skin External Barrier

A

Difficult for microorganisms to enter the body because:

Tough keratin
Too dry and nutrient-poor for microbial growth
Acid Mantle - A thin film of lactic and fatty acids that inhibit bacterial growth
Dermicidin, defensins, and cathelicidins - Peptides in the skin that kill microbes

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29
Q

Mucous Membrane External Barrier

A

Mucus physically traps microbes
Lysozyme - An enzyme found in mucus, tears, and saliva that destroys bacteria

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30
Q

Innate Leukocytes

A

Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Lymphocytes, and Monocytes

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31
Q

Neutrophils

A

Innate

They wander through connective tissues, killing bacteria via phagocytosis and digestion

By degranulating its lysosomes and discharging its enzymes into tissue fluid, it creates a respiratory burst/killing zone to eliminate viruses

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32
Q

Eosinophils

A

Found in mucous membranes

Kills tapeworms and roundworms by producing superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and toxic proteins

Promotes the action of basophils and mast cells

Phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes

Secrete enzymes that degrade and limit the action of histamine and other inflammatory chemicals

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33
Q

Basophils

A

Secrete chemicals that aid mobility and actions of other leukocytes

Leukotrienes - activate and attract neutrophils & eosinophils

Histamine - a vasodilator, speeding the delivery of leukocytes to the area

Heparin - inhibits clot formation

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34
Q

Lymphocytes

A

T, B, and NK cells

T & B cells are part of adaptive immunity

NK cells are part of innate immunity

helper T cells function in both

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35
Q

Monocytes

A

Emigrate from the blood into connective tissues where they become macrophages

Macrophage System

Activated by Interferons

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36
Q

Macrophage System

A

All of the body’s avidly phagocytic cells that aren’t leukocytes. Includes:

Wandering Macrophages - Actively seeking pathogens, distributed throughout loose connective tissue

Fixed Macrophages - Phagocytize only pathogens that come to them

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37
Q

Fixed Macrophages (3)

A

Microglia - In the CNS, they originate in the immune system

Alveolar Macrophages - In the lungs

Hepatic Macrophages - In the liver, they fight off alcohols & other toxins

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38
Q

Interferons

A

Produced by infected cells, they bind to healthy cells to warn them of viruses.

Once the interferon binds to a healthy cell, it turns on genes to code for antiviral proteins that block viral reproduction

They are specific and have no memory

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39
Q

Complement System

A

A group of 30+ defensive proteins that amplify all aspects of the inflammatory response, kill bacteria through lysis, and can be used in both learning and non-learning systems

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40
Q

Fever

A

An adaptive defense mechanism

Initiated by exogenous pyrogens, fever-producing agents that originate outside the body

These pyrogens stimulate neurons of the anterior hypothalamus to increase body temp.

It is a negative feedback system that raises the homeostatic temperature

Metabolic & reproductive functions are increased so the body can fight off the virus

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41
Q

Inflammation & the major processes (3)

A

A local response to tissue injury or infection. Three major processes:

Mobilization of Body Defenses

Containment& Destruction of Pathogens

Tissue Cleanup & Repair

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42
Q

Inflammation: Mobilization of Body Defenses

A

The goal is to get defensive leukocytes to the site quickly

Achieved by local hyperemia (increased blood flow)

Vasoactive chemicals increase capillary permeability, allowing larger cells to escape (clotting, complement, and antibody proteins)

Selectins recruit leukocytes and cause margination (WBCs “smelling” the chemicals of the injury site)

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43
Q

Margination

A

WBCs “smell” the injury chemicals, change in shape, and “crawl” along the capillary wall as they get closer to the site of injury

During this process, they look for places on the capillary walls where they can escape

Chemotaxis is the process of following the chemical trail

If the WBC is a macrophage, it will begin to digest the bacteria

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44
Q

Inflammation: Containment and Destruction of Pathogens

A

Neutrophils respond within an hour of the injury, secreting cytokines for further recruitment of macrophages and neutrophils

Macrophages and T cells secrete colony-stimulating factors that stimulate leukopoiesis, further raising WBC counts

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45
Q

Inflammation: Tissue Cleanup & Repair

A

Monocytes are the primary agents of cleanup and repair, arriving in 8-12 hrs and becoming macrophages. They destroy bacteria, damaged, and dead cells

Edema (swelling) compresses veins and reduces venous drainage and forces lymphatic capillary valves open

Pus is comprised of dead neutrophils, bacteria, and cellular debris

Increased heat increases the metabolic rate which speeds mitosis and repair

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46
Q

Cardinal Signs of Inflammation/Signs of Healing

A

Pain, Redness, Swelling, & Heat

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47
Q

Cytokines

A

Small proteins that serve as a chemical communication network among immune cells

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48
Q

Defining Characteristics of Adaptive Immunity

A

Systemic Effect - When an adaptive response occurs, it acts throughout the body

Specificity - Adaptive immunity is sharply focused on a specific invader

Memory - Reexposure produces a quicker reaction

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49
Q

Forms of Adaptive Immunity (2)

A

Cellular

Humoral

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50
Q

Cellular Adaptive Immunity

A

Cell-mediated/T cell immunity employs lymphocytes that directly attack and destroy foreign cells or diseased host cells that house pathogens

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51
Q

Humoral Adaptive Immunity

A

Antibody-mediated/B cell immunity employs antibodies that don’t directly destroy pathogens, but rather tags them for destruction

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52
Q

Natural Active Immunity

A

Immunity acquired by the natural exposure to an antigen

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53
Q

Artificial Active Immunity

A

Immunity acquired by the result of a vaccination

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54
Q

Natural Passive Immunity

A

Temporary immunity that results from acquiring antibodies produced by another person

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55
Q

Artificial Passive Immunity

A

Temporary immunity that results from the injection of an immune serum obtained from another person or animals with those antibodies

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56
Q

Active vs. Passive Immunity

A

The active immune system has memory

The passive immune system doesn’t

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57
Q

Antibodies

A

AKA immunoglobulins, they are proteins in the gamma globulin class that help with defense

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58
Q

Antibody Structure

A

V region - Variable region in all four chains that gives the antibody its uniqueness

C region - Constant region in each chain that gives the antibody its class

59
Q

Antibody Classes (5)

A

IgA

IgD

IgM

IgE

IgG

60
Q

IgA Antibody

A

In mucus, saliva, tears, milk, and intestines, they prevent pathogen adherence to epithelia and penetration of underlying tissues

Provides passive immunity to newborns

61
Q

IgD Antibody

A

B cell transmembrane antigen receptor that is thought to function in B cell activation by antigens

62
Q

IgM

A

A pentamer in plasma and lymph that is secreted in primary immune response. It causes agglutination and complement fixation

63
Q

IgE

A

Acts on basophils, stimulating the release of histamine and other chemical mediators of inflammation and allergy

Attracts Eosinophils to infection sites and produces immediate hypersensitivity reactions

64
Q

IgG

A

Constitutes 80% of the circulating antibodies

Crosses from the placenta to the fetus, secreted in secondary immune response and complement fixation

65
Q

How many different antibodies can the human immune system produce?

A

1 trillion

66
Q

Categories of Lymphocytes

A

NK Cells

T cells

B cells

67
Q

What happens to T cells in the Thymus?

A

Cortical epithelial cells release chemicals that stimulate maturing T cells to develop surface antigen receptors.

These receptors make the T cells immunocompetent

Medullary epithelial cells test the T cells by presenting self-antigens to them

Only 2% of T cells pass both positive and negative selection tests and are deployed

68
Q

Immunocompetency: Positive Selection

A

The MHC of an APC and the T cell receptor bind together. If the T cell recognizes the MHC, it passes, otherwise the T cell is killed.

69
Q

Immunocompetency: Negative Selection

A

T cells that passed positive selection tests then check for recognition of the self-antigen. If the self-antigen is recognized, meaning the T cell would attack it, thus the T cell is killed before that happens. If the self-antigen is not recognized, the T cells will not attack the host cells

70
Q

Naive Lymphocyte Pool

A

Immunocompetent T cells that have yet to encounter foreign antigens

71
Q

B cell Immunocompetency

A

B cells mature in the red bone marrow

Self-tolerant B cells synthesize their own antigen receptors and divide rapidly, producing clones

Once mature, B cells leave the bone marrow and colonize the same lymphatic tissues and organs as T cells

72
Q

Antigen-Presenting Cells

A

Allow T cells to recognize antigens.

Dendritic cells, macrophages, reticular cells, and B cells function as APCs

APC function is determined by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins that act as ID tags for every cell of your body

73
Q

Antigen Processing in APCs

A

The APC encounters an antigen

Endocytosis occurs, taking the antigen into the cell

The cell’s lysosome fuses with the phagosome, mixing enzymes and antigen

The antigen is digested into molecular fragments, the rest is expelled via exocytosis

The fragments are displayed in the grooves of the MHC proteins

74
Q

T cell communication with APCs

A

Wandering T cells inspect APCs for displayed antigens

If there is only a self-antigen present, the T cells ignore the APC

If the APC displays a foreign antigen, the T cell initiates an immune attack

75
Q

Types of T cells (4)

A

Cytotoxic T cells (Tc)

Helper T cells (Th)

Regulatory T cells (Tr)

Memory T cells (Tm)

76
Q

Cytotoxic T Cells

A

Killer T cells (NOT NKCs) that carry out the attack on foreign cells

77
Q

Helper T Cells

A

Promote the action of Tc & B cells and play key roles in humoral and innate immunity

78
Q

Regulatory T Cells

A

Limit the immune response by inhibiting multiplication and cytokine secretion by other T cells

After defeating a pathogen, Tr cells down-regulate Tc activity, otherwise inflammation would remain

79
Q

Memory T Cells

A

Descended from Tc cells and are responsible for memory in cellular immunity

80
Q

Adaptive Defense

A

An APC digests and presents an antigen

Th (CD4) cells contact the APC and clones into memory CD4 cells and helper cells

Helper cells, with co-stimulation, activate Tc (CD8) cells

Tc cells clone to produce memory Tc cells and activated Tc cells

Helper cells, when stimulated by cytokines, produce nonspecific killers (macrophages and NKCs)

81
Q

Stages of Adaptive Defense

A

Recognition: APCs encounter and process antigens, presenting them to T cells. The T cells are activated and they undergo repeated mitosis (clonal selection)

Attack: Th cells are necessary as they coordinate both humoral and cellular immunity. Tc cells “dock: on the MHC protein of a foreign cell and deliver lethal doses of chemicals to kill them

Memory: Following clonal selection, some Tc and Th cells become memory cells that have long life spans

82
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

An indirect method of defense where B lymphocytes produce antibodies that bind to antigens, tagging them for destruction by other means

83
Q

Primary vs Secondary Humoral Response

A

Primary Response: The first time a virus is presented and fought off by the body, IgM antibodies are produced first, then IgG antibodies are produced shortly after but in a larger quantity.

Secondary Response: A later presentation of the same virus results in both IgG and IgM antibodies being produced, though IgG production is still greater

84
Q

Stages of Humoral Immunity

A

Recognition: An antigen binds to several receptors on a B cell, linking them together. The antigen is then taken into the cell and digested.

Attack: B cells produce antibodies for the digested antigen and release them, leading to one of four mechanisms to render the antigen harmless.

Memory: The primary response occurs the first time an antigen is presented, resulting in the B cell cloning itself. During clonal selection, some cloned cells become memory cells instead of plasma cells.

85
Q

How to B Lymphocytes produce Antibodies?

A

B cells become plasma cells, which have lots of rough ER. The ribosomes of the rough ER are used to make antibodies.

86
Q

Humoral Attack Mechanisms (4)

A

Neutralization

Complement Fixation

Agglutination

Precipitation

87
Q

Humoral Neutralization

A

Antibodies bind to the surface of the antigen, covering it and preventing it from binding and infecting other cells

Enhances phagocytosis

88
Q

Humoral Complement Fixation

A

An action in which antibodies bind complement proteins to an enemy cell, leading to its destruction via lysis

Enhances phagocytosis and inflammation

89
Q

Humoral Agglutination

A

Antibodies effectively clump multiple antigens together

Enhances phagocytosis

90
Q

Humoral Precipitation

A

Antigen molecules are clumped together via adhesion to antibodies. Similar to agglutination, however these antigens are more like a chain than a clump

Enhances phagocytosis

91
Q

Hypersensitivity Immune Disorder

A

An excessive immune reaction against antigens that most people tolerate.

Alloimmunity: Reaction to transplanted tissue from another person

Autoimmunity: Abnormal reactions to one’s own tissues

Allergies: Reactions to environmental antigens

92
Q

Reasons why Autoimmune Diseases fail self-tolerance? (3)

A

Cross Reactivity: Some antibodies made for foreign antigens react similar to self-antigens

Abnormal Exposure of self-antigens to blood: Some of our native antigens are not normally exposed to blood

Change in the structure of self-antigens: Viruses and drugs may change the structure of self-antigens or cause the immune system to perceive them as foreign

93
Q

Functions of the Respiratory System (8)

A

Gas Exchange
Communication
Olfaction/Smell
Acid-Base Balance
Blood Pressure Regulation
Platelet Production
Blood & Lymph Flow
Blood Filtration
Expulsion of Abdominal Content

94
Q

Valsalva Maneuver

A

Closing the glottis and contracting the muscles of the abdomen when trying to produce more force (urination, defecation, childbirth, vomiting)

95
Q

Conducting Zone

A

Areas of the Respiratory System where air flows freely

96
Q

Respiratory Zone

A

Areas of the Respiratory System where gas exchange occurs

97
Q

Functions of the Nasal Region of the Upper Respiratory Tract

A

Warms, cleanses, and humidifies inhaled air. Also detects odors and amplifies the voice.

98
Q

How is air warmed in the nasal region?

A

Blood vessels are very close to the surface, allowing for better heat transfer

99
Q

Where is the Olfactory Epithelium located?

A

It lines only the superior portion of the nasal conchae

100
Q

What is the purpose of the nasal cavity?

A

The nasal cavity serves to collect debris and prevent it from entering the respiratory tract. The narrowness of the L & R cavities, along with the turbulence of the airflow ensures surface area contact

101
Q

What is the primary function of the Larynx?

A

It keeps food and drink out of the airway via the epiglottis. It also plays a role in sound production via the “voice box”

102
Q

What is the Glottis?

A

A slit between the larynx and trachea that houses vestibular and vocal folds

103
Q

Vestibular Folds

A

Musculature that opens and closes the glottis

104
Q

Vocal Folds

A

AKA Vocal Cords, they help to close the glottis when contracted

As air flows through the folds, it produces sounds for vocalization which are then modified by the pharynx

105
Q

Male vs. Female Vocal Cords

A

Male voices are deeper because the glottis and folds are longer and thicker

The cords vibrate more slowly, producing lower-pitched sounds

106
Q

What is the Mucociliary Escalator?

A

Cilia on the trachea epithelium moves mucus upward past the epiglottis so that it can be swallowed

107
Q

Why does smoker’s cough occur?

A

The cilia on the trachea have disappeared or been damaged by smoking, meaning that mucus cannot be pulled upward and must be coughed up.

108
Q

Bronchial Tree

A

The trachea divides into left and right MAIN BRONCHI.

The main bronchi then divide further into BRONCHIOLES

109
Q

Bronchioles

A

The smallest bronchi at the end of the conducting zone

110
Q

Alveoli

A

A cluster of small alveolus pouches that are porous and directly exchange air with each other. They are surrounded to and connected to the pulmonary capillary beds

111
Q

Squamous (Type I) Alveolar Cells

A

Cover 95% of the alveolar surface area, allowing for rapid gas diffusion and connecting them to the capillary bed

112
Q

Great (Type II) Alveolar Cells

A

Covers the other 5% and repairs the alveolar epithelium when type I cells are damaged. They secrete pulmonary surfactant

113
Q

Pulmonary Surfactant

A

Fluid secreted by type II alveolar cells that breaks the bonds between water molecules, reducing the cohesion/attraction between them. This helps the thin, watery membranes within the alveoli to stretch during inhalation

114
Q

Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells)

A

The most numerous of all lung cells, they wander the lumens of alveoli and the connective tissues between them, phagocytizing dust particles

115
Q

Respiratory Membrane

A

The layers of alveolar and blood vessel tissues where gas exchange occurs between the two

116
Q

Why and how are the alveoli kept dry?

A

Gases diffuse too slowly through liquids

Alveoli are kept dry by the absorption of excess liquid by blood capillaries

Lungs have more lymphatic drainage than any other organ

117
Q

How is respiratory airflow related to pressure and resistance?

A

Airflow is directly proportional to pressure differences between two places

Airflow is inversely proportional to resistance

118
Q

What pressure drives respiration?

A

Atmospheric Pressure

760 mmHg = 1 atm

119
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

Volume decreases as Pressure increases

At a constant Temperature

120
Q

Intrapulmonary Pressure

A

The pressure within the lungs. It is ALWAYS greater than intrapleural pressure

121
Q

Intrapleural Pressure

A

The pressure outside of the lungs in the pleural cavity. This is NEGATIVE pressure

122
Q

Transpulmonary Pressure

A

The difference between Intrapulmonary and Intrapleural pressures

123
Q

Factors influencing airway resistance (2)

A

Diameter of Bronchioles

Pulmonary Compliance

124
Q

What causes bronchodilation?

A

Epinephrine and the Sympathetic Nervous System

125
Q

What causes bronchoconstriction?

A

Histamine, the Parasympathetic Nervous System, cold air, and other irritants

126
Q

Pulmonary Compliance

A

The ease with which the lungs can expand

Compliance is reduced by degenerative lung disease in which the lungs are stiffened by scar tissue

127
Q

Tidal Volume

A

The volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle of breathing

Average = 500 mL

128
Q

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

A

The excess air that can be inhaled after tidal volume with maximum effort

Average = 3,000 mL

129
Q

Expiratory Reserve Volume

A

Air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort

Average = 1,200 mL

130
Q

Residual Volume

A

The volume of air still in the lungs after fully forcing as much air out as possible

131
Q

Visceral Pleura

A

Pleural layer that covers the lungs and extends into the fissures of the lungs

132
Q

Parietal Pleura

A

Pleural layer that adheres to the mediastinum, inner rib cage, and superior surface of the diaphragm

133
Q

Pleural Cavity

A

The space between the lungs and the ribcage that is filled with pleural fluid, reducing friction

134
Q

Anatomical Dead Space

A

The area of the conducting zone that holds inhaled air. This air does not reach the alveoli and the gases within are not exchanged.

135
Q

Physiological (Total) Dead Space

A

The sum of anatomical dead space and any pathological dead space that exists

136
Q

Alveolar Ventilation Rate

A

The volume of air that ventilates the alveoli multiplied by breaths/minute

137
Q

Henry’s Law

A

Increasing the partial pressure of a gas will make it more soluble

138
Q

Partial Pressure

A

The pressure of one gas in the air. The sum of all partial pressures adds up to atmospheric pressure

139
Q

Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling

A

Blood flow matches airflow and vice versa.

When airflow decreases, the partial pressure of O2 in the blood vessels decreases resulting in vasoconstriction of the pulmonary vessels, decreasing blood flow.

When blood flow decreases, the partial pressure of CO2 in the alveoli is reduced causing constriction of the bronchioles and decreasing airflow.

140
Q

Variables that affect the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange

A

Pressure gradients from gases
Solubility of gases
Membrane thickness
Membrane area
Ventilation-perfusion coupling

141
Q

How does transportation occur at the capillary-alveolar barrier?

A

Oxygen from the alveoli enter the bloodstream in large quantities, binding to Hb which in turn releases H+ ions.

The H+ ions then bind to HCO3- (bicarbonate) to make H2CO3. This molecule then splits into H2O and CO2, which enters the alveoli to be exhaled.

142
Q

How does transportation occur at the capillary-tissue barrier?

A

CO2 is released from the tissues and into the bloodstream where it combines with H2O to make H2CO3. This molecule then releases an H+ ion which binds to HbO2, causing it to release O2 for use in the tissues.

143
Q

How is CO2 transported in the blood?

A

Primarily in the form of carbonic acid

5% bound to proteins

5% dissolved as a gas in the plasma

144
Q

What factors adjust the rate of O2 unloading?

A

Ambient PO2 - Active tissues have lower PO2, so O2 is released from Hb

Ambient pH - Active tissues have more CO2, lowering pH and promoting O2 unloading

Biphosphoglycerate

Temperature - Active tissues have a higher temperature, promoting O2 unloading because proteins unfold at higher temps

Biol 233 (4 decks)

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