exam 4 Flashcards
Shackleton and the nimrod expedition
Wilson didn’t go due to his loyalty to Scott. After raising enough funds, Shackleton took 15 men/400 applicants to New Zealand then to McMurdo. The most treacherous part of the journey would be the glaciers w/ crevasses after getting off the ice shelf. The plan was to have sledges drop supplies ahead of them to the polar plateau. In the spring, Shackleton set out with three men using ponies for the first leg. He made it the farthest south on the plateau, but turned back for his men’s safety (weak/low on food). Discovered the south magnetic pole, Shackleton was hailed as a hero and one of the greatest explorers in British history (always put his men first, never lost a man).
Cape royds
Shackleton wanted to set up quarters on the ice shelf, but saw it had collapsed/was unreliable. Hut Point was closed off by ice, so they placed their prefab hut on Cape Royds (even farther from the SP, but the closest ice-free area). Hut barely differs today.
Douglas Mawson and the South magnetic pole
An Australian geologist on the nimrod expedition. Made the first ascent of Mt. Erebus where he studied lake and ocean waters and kept a meteorological station to keep busy. He was in a party of three that set out for the south magnetic pole with car towing sledges, and helped set depots across the sea ice. Found the MSP and returned to nimrod.
First use of motor vehicles an ponies for polar travel
Shackleton brought them on the Nimrod expedition. Motor vehicles got stuck in the snow and overheated more than froze. Ponies/horses post holed into the snow, which slowed them down, and were eventually shot.
Significance of shackeltons attempt on the pole
Made it farthest South (to the polar plateau over 10,000 ft elevation), found the south magnetic pole, first ascent of Mt. Erebus, cars/ponies not efficient, hailed as a hero for putting his men’s safety first.
Robert Falcon Scott and the Terra Nova Expedition
Another attempt to reach the south pole. Bought an old whaling ship (Terra Nova), and brought Wilson.
Ronald Amundsen and why he switched from North to South Pole
Soon after Scott left on his Terra Nova Expedition he received a telegram from Amundsen stating he was going to the south pole after Robert Peary made it to the north pole. Amundsen had been working in the arctic and gained lots of polar experience there. His men didn’t know he switched from north to south until after they left port.
Differences between Scott and Amundsen for the polar travel and objectives
Amundsen: was better prepared/had more experience (one trip to the antarctic, and had been working in the arctic), brought sleds skis and dogs, set up on the Ross Ice Shelf and kept men busy throughout winter.
Scott: took one previous trip to antarctic, only brought ponies and planned to manhaul sleds in deep snow, set hut up on Cape Evans, doing more research (brought a larger group), and separated people based on military protocol
Both prepared in Spring, neither knew when the other would leave.
Edward Wilson and Apsley Cherry Gerard
Wilson wanted to study Emperor Penguins (thought to be the most prehistoric egg in the world - embryonic info). 3 men inc. Wilson & ACG made a winter journey to Cape Crozier (also did study on amount of calories needed for man-hauling for Scott in spring). ACG wrote “The Worst Journey in the World” to get to emperor penguin colony, made it, almost died.
Worst journey int he world, objectives and results
Had to double the length of the journey (took 3 men to haul one sled then go back for the other). Were gone 37 days. Made a stone-hut on Cape Crozier, and almost lost the tent they used for a roof (would have been a death sentence on the way back). Weight of cargo increased as they went along (sweat froze, added cargo, etc.) Broke one egg on the way back. Apsley had health problems the rest of his life in part due to the journey.
Herbert pointing and photography
Photographer on the Terra Nova Expedition, and made a film called 90º South. Did advertising in antarctic to help with trip funding.
Journeys to the pole by Amundsen and Scott, timing, differences
Amundsen left in September, faced harsh conditions, made it to the pole first in December. Scott didn’t leave until November. Man-hauled sledges/skied, moved slower, reached the pole in January.
Depots for Polar travel
All teams started laying depots with food/supplies in the spring to prepare for journeys to the pole
reasons for Scotts deaths
Scott stopped to collect geological samples on the way back from the pole (1st glysopteris fossils). They got trapped by a blizzard which made travel brutally difficult. Evans died at the base of a glacier and Oats sacrificed himself on his birthday. Then Scott, Wilson and Bowers died between One Ton & Mt. Hooper depot in their tent. Apsley tried to find him, but turned back when a fellow man faked sick, since Scott wasn’t overdue.`
Aftermath of Scotts death in england
Scott was an immediate national hero (later critics claimed he didn’t prepare properly enough). ACG spent the rest of his life feeling remorseful w/ PTSD, health problems and bouts of depression.
Scotts northern party and inexpressible island
Had a norther party of about 5-6 men in Ross Sea initially on Cape Adare to do mapping. They set up their camp on the upper terrace to watch for the ship. They were then brought to Inexpressible Island where they got stuck for the winter in a snow cave. Raymond Priesely wrote a book describing winds that are constant (180 days of winds), ones who named the island.
Cape Evans and Falcon Scott
Cape Evans is preserved and maintained by the New Zealand Heritage Trust. Falcon Scott (RFS’s grandson) helped 100 years later and went to the South Pole. Hut was used by RFS on Terra Nova Expedition.
The endurance and far in the ice for Shackleton
Shackleton got stuck in the Weddell Sea. Frank Hurley documented it with photos. The ship drifted far after it was trapped midsummer. As the ice started to melt in the spring it crushed and sank the ship.
Elephant island and the boat journey, rogue waves
After the endurance sank they had to row boats w/ dogs to make it over open water. The closest island determined by Worsely was Elephant Island. They had limited resources and had to move on from the island. Shackleton, Caird, Crean (sailor) and Worsely left to pass Drake’s passage to reach SG w/ whaling stations. They took the problem men, and put skins over the top of the boat to prevent waves. On the journey they hit a massive rogue wave (caused by seismic activity, change in currents, and disappear quickly).
South Georgia Island and trek across mountains
Shackleton landed 17 miles and a mountain range away from Stromness. Left the two problem men at the beach and took Worsely and Crean to trek for two days straight with no gear and eventually made it to Stromness after a year of being gone. Picked men up from the beach, used an Argentine ship to get men from Elephant Island & Ross Sea party left. They were all sent to WWI, and Shackleton later returned to find men’s bodies.
Shackleton’s new expedition and death at grytviken
Ended shortly after Shackleton died in 1922. After that, there were few other excursions south.
End of heroic age
ended shortly after Shackleton died in 1922. After that, there were few other excursions.
Richard Byrd and naval flight
An American naval flight instructor who was the first to fly over the arctic.
Little America and Byrd’s first expedition to Antartica
He obtained funds, planes, and set up a base near Amundsen’s old base on the Ross Ice Shelf. The base was called Little America. Byrd and his men spent the winter on the base. The following summer he flew to the pole. Had a sled party on the ice shelf that did geological research, discovered sedimentary rock, mountain ranges, and more evidence that Antarctica was a continent. Byrd was celebrated/promoted to rear-admiral back home.
Flight to the pole and back
After wintering in Little America, the following summer Byrd flew to the pole in 15 hours. Had to throw things out of the plane to make it lighter to make it over the plateau.
Byrd’s Second expedition and little America 2
Byrd returned to Antarctica and set up LAII to do research. Spent a year gathering data on climate, atmosphere, used tractors/other machinery to explore inland, and made more flights. He spent part of the winter in a weather station alone where he developed CO poisoning from a leaky stove which weakened him daily. He tried to fake fine with his men over radio calls until the they realized he was sick and went to rescue him.
Scientific discoveries and advances at little America 2
Discovered there was no strait between Ross and Weddell seas indicating Antarctica is one large continent. Also discovered new mountain ranges, more life than expected, and that more meteorites bombard Earth than previously known. Set the foundation for modern scientific studies in Antarctica.
territorial claims in antartica
At the same time Byrd was advancing research in Antarctica, many countries started to lay claim to Antarctic territories. France claimed Adelie Land which irritated Australia who sent Mawson to lay claims. Norway and Germany were involved as well (Hitler disregarded claims and sent aircraft to drop markers).
Ross and Falkland Island dependencies
Britain established the Ross Island Dependency and claimed between 150-160º longitude for New Zealand following the Falkland Island Dependencies between 20-80º longitude.
Claims associated with taxes on whaling
Some countries made claims to avoid taxes on whaling, but WWII ended much of this, especially for Germany.
Lincoln Ellsworth and first transantarctic flight
He left for the bay of whales in the ross sea, but had to abort due to plane damage. The following year he went to Snow Hill, but weather caused another abort. Finally the following summer he flew from Dundee island in 22 days to Little America. He rediscovered Nordenskjold’s hut on Snow Hill (hut indicated the men left in a hurry, and the chocolate was still good after 30 years). He also discovered the Ellsworth Mountains on the microplate, complete aerial surveys, claimed lands for the US, and was the first to see parts of western Antarctica.
who was Lincoln ellsworth
Ellsworth was an aviator who helped Amundsen in the arctic, and wanted to make a transantarctic flight.
where is Ellsworths plane now
at the air and space museum
little America 3 and first color photographs
US established the U.S. Antarctic Service and sent Byrd to do more research at Little America III (same area on ice shelf as I and II near bay of whales). He returned to the US 2 years later with new data and the first color photos of Antarctica.
Operation high jump and little America IV
After WWII, the US navy sent a fleet of ships to gather more info and set up stations. Had to do with the start of the cold war and USSR growing interest in Antarctica. Byrd was in charge of the central group and set up LAIV near LAIII. Completed aerial surveys inland, and discovered new mountain ranges. The eastern and western groups mapped more coastline.
First use of icebreakers and helicopters
Occurred during Operation Highjump, used by the central group lead by Byrd.
discovery of ‘oasis’ at hunger hills
Western fleet discovered a large ice-free area at Bunger Hills during operation highjump (now part of Australian territories).
U.S. proclamation cairn at Peterson island
Canister, flag, and documents placed by a fleet that followed the Western group in operation windmill. Originally sent to the Davis Sea & Bunger coast to map control points for aerial photos from the western group.
genesis of the IGY an previous intentional polar years
There had already been two previous IPY dealing with arctic research. After WWI problems in radio communication provided impetus to have another IPY to better understand earth’s magnetic field and electrical geophysics (considerable data on weather and meteorology collected, but most was lost during WWII). The IGY got Antarctic research going, and this was also when most stations were established.
International council of scientific unions
Proposal for the IGY was approved by the ICSU which represented 67 countries. They made the year 18 months to allow for establishment time/data collection. While the focus of the IGY was global, they decided to make Antarctica and outer space the primary focus.
Lloyd Berkner and Sydney Chapman
Advancements in rocket science and seismology led physicist Dr. Lloyd Berkner to suggest another IGY (not polar because he wanted the focus to be on space studies and radio waves) to use modern techniques to study earth’s surface and atmosphere. Berkner had been apart of Byrd’s first expedition. Sydney Chapman suggested 1957-58 for the IGY years.
Why 1957-58 for IGY
Years were suggested due to the high sunspot activity. Data could also be contrasted to the low sunspot activity during the last IPY.
Why are sunspots relevant to us on earth
sunspots interfere with radio waves, and can give us a better understanding of radio communication issues
What was the main focus of the IGY & what were the implications for the future
Meetings were held and it was agreed that Antarctica and outer space would receive the most attention. The 12 countries involved in the IGY were fundamental in later setting up the Antarctic Treaty.
USSR and Sputnik 1
In October 1957 the USSR surprised the world and launched the first artificial satellite (size of a basketball, 1st satellite to go up and do an orbit)
Cold War and the space race
Launch of Sputnik I worried the US and started the space race to develop new technologies and eventually military during the cold war.
US concerns in Antartica
US was concerned that the Soviet Union would begin placing military bases in Antarctica, so they wanted to increase their presence.
Operation deepfreeze and little America 5
As a prelude to the IGY the US sent admiral Byrd to Antarctica one more time. He established LAV 30 miles east of LAIV, along with six other stations
Establishment of IGY research stations
12 countries established 40 stations (7 by the US) in Antarctica and an additional 20 on islands.
US stations
Byrd and Little America were abandoned, Wilkes was turned over to Australia, and Ellsworth was turned over to Argentina (abandoned due to unstable conditions on the ice shelf).
Pros and cons of the IGY stations
The stations weren’t careful until after the antarctic treaty and were harmful to the areas they were built on, but very important research was done.
extension of IGY
Participation by the US, USSR, Belgium & Argentina to propose a 12 month extension to the IGY. It was clear by then that US and other countries intended to keep their presence in Antarctica so extension was granted. Ended up keeping presence indefinitely.
Formation of SCAR by ICSU and effectiveness for science
ICSU formed the scientific committee for antarctic research that included delegates from all countries actively involved. It’s still present as one of the most effective committees ever formed.
Scientific accomplishments in IGY and genesis for Antarctic treaty
On a global scale the IGY was very successful: First space program, discovery of van allen belts (can be damaging to satellites/space travel), initiation of atmospheric studies on carbon & ozone, new info on glacial dynamics, genesis for the antarctic treaty
William Bruce and the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition
W.S Bruce led a scottish national antarctic expedition to Laurie Island. He received help from Argentina establishing the hut he stayed in.
Stone Hut on Laurie Island, south orkneys
W.S. Bruce offered his hut and meteorological station to the British, but they turned it down so he gave it to Argentina
Longest continuous occupation in antartica, by argentina
Argentina established the longest continuous recorded occupation in Antarctica at the stone hut on Laurie Island in the South Orkneys
1908 territorial claim by britain
The claim by Britain included the Falkland and South Orkney Islands
Falkland War 1982
Claim by Britain on the Falkland/South Orkney Islands led to disputes with Argentina and eventually led to the Falkland war (only shot ever fired in the Antarctic)
territorial claims, 1940’s
By 1940 a number of wedge shaped claims had been made, though some were restricted to just some islands or part of the coast.
overlapping claims and problems
Only Britain, Chile, and Argentina had overlapping claims. Chile and Argentina tried to make separate claims of priority based on a decree from the 1400s
agreement between Chile and argentina
The two countries eventually agreed to a harmonious plan of action for the better scientific knowledge of the Antarctic zone by means of exploration and technical investigations.
US position and attempt for peace with UN trusteeship
The US tried to stay neutral despite non-assertive claims. They proposed that Antarctica become a trust territory, though only NZ agreed to relinquish its claims. Then, Chapman and Berkner proposed the IGY and research, along with 12 other countries, shaped Antarctica’s future.
Claimant vs non-claimant nations
There were 7 claimant (made claims) and 5 non-claimant nations involved in Antarctic research during the IGY
president Eisenhower and secret treaty meetings
The IGY, focus on research, SCAR, and increasing discovery of mineral, oil, and gas deposits on land/continental shelf led the 12 nations to hold a series of meetings where they hammered out guidelines that would become the treaty. These meetings were held in D.C. by invitation of president eisenhower.
signing of the Antarctic treaty, December 1959
The treaty was formalized at Eisenhower’s meetings and was signed 12/1/59
Herman Phleger
US ambassador who signed the Anarctic treaty
Lawrence Gould
A geologist, and chief scientist on Byrd’s first expedition. He discovered sedimentary rocks, and showed Antarctica was a continent. He did much to promote Antarctic research and promote international competition.
Treaty statement of purpose
The treaty came into effect in 1961 and resolved that in the interest of all mankind Antarctica shall continue forever and be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international dispute.
Consultative vs non-consultative countries in treaty
Consultative countries are recognized in conducting substantial research activities such as having a scientific station or expeditions (contracting party). Non-consultative countries do not conduct substantial research but accede to the terms of the treaty and can attend meetings.
who votes on treaty and need for consensus
Only consultative parties can vote on treaty amendments and any new articles, must be a unanimous vote
Acceding nations
In general they end up initiating research and becoming consultative.
Major agreements in treaty
Allows for peaceful presence of military from each country (no nuclear testing/weapons development), but only for peaceful purposes and scientific cooperation. It doesn’t expire, can be reviewed/modified with a majority vote of consultative parties after 30 years. It sets aside, but does not dissolve territorial claims. There are currently 29 CP and 24 NCP. The climate sets up exploitation boundaries.
treaty enforcement as a gentleman’s agreement
Enforcement of the treaty is left up to the individual nations
agreed measures 1964
Conservation of fauna & flora arose from concerns about ecosystem conservation. Can’t kill, wound, capture or molest mammals/birds without a permit (allowable for scientific research, food for men/dogs, and for input in museums/ecological gardens/educational/cultural institutions). Also limited harmful interference (can’t fly helicopters near wildlife, dogs can’t run free, no introduced species). Set up ASPAs and led to antarctic conservation act.
Seals convention, 1972
Provided protection for seals on ice floes in high seas below 60º South. Still allowable takes for scientific research/commercial use with a permit.
CCAMLR, 1980
Didn’t include seals/whales. Marine resources (fish, molluscs, crustacean, krill) were depleting. Saw a need to manage the marine environment and wanted to prevent overexploitation of fish, krill, etc. to maintain stable recruitment populations below 60º south. They wanted to restore depleted populations by managing an entire ecosystem. According to CCAMLR conservation includes rational use. They also set up contracting parties to agree to articles and can appoint a member from each country forming a commission which determined fishing limits. Non-contracting parties could join to obtain data.
CRAMRA, 1988
Was never ratified, arose to protect non-living resources and prevent international discord over mineral rights. France and Australia refused to ratify.
Environmental protocol, 1991
One of the most important agreements with strict environmental protocols for all research stations and tourism. Followed after CRAMRA failure. Arose because impacts of stations varied (discarded materials, fauna/flora displacement, pollution from spills/dumping of wastes, still dumps from pre-IGY and IGY). Prohibited mineral resource activities save for research, all wastes must be removed from the continent, no open air burning (incineration only), sewage could be dumped in the sea only if it had no adverse effects on the local environment, for stations of thirty or more people they must treat the sewage first. US, UK, and Australia took the EP very seriously.
UN convention of law of the sea and importance for antarctica
Ocean zones as recognized by international agreement, high seas cover 2/3 of all oceans, and 45% of Earth’s surface. Does not protect biodiversity, mineral resources, and there are no restraints on illegal fishing.
Definitions of ‘high seas’ and exclusive economic zones
Sovereign rights for exploring exploiting, conserving and managing living and non-living resources of the water, seabed and subsoil. High seas occur after the claimed zone of the ocean (200 miles of exclusive economic zone).
Role of Greenpeace in establishing the EP
Efforts made by Greenpeace to draw attention to pollution and impacts in Antarctica (established a base @ Cape Evans, pushed drive to keep Antarctica pristine). Other countries were told to ignore them, but New Zealand said they’d help in an emergency. They exploited trash dumps (increased skuas, decreased penguin pops), blocked construction at D’umont Durville of an airstrip (only part of it was built), very emotional bias in science.
CCAMLR and ecosystem management, CEMP
Established by CCAMLR and works closely with SCAR. Goals were to detect changes in the ecosystem that would be important toward conservation goals, and to distinguish between changes due to environmental variables vs harvesting.
CCAMLR and indicator species
CEMP set up a series of key indicator species to use as a proxy for the health of the ecosystem (krill, adelie, chinstrap, gentoo, crabeater, fur seal, etc). Monitored changes in food stocks/krill.
CCAMLR and MPA’s
Fisheries are of primary concern but reaching a consensus for catch limits has been difficult (especially for toothfish). They agreed to establish MPAs by 2012. By 2015 there was still no consensus for EA and the Ross Sea (blocked by China and Russia). Recently, the Ross Sea was approved but only for 35 years, can breakout at anytime and certain areas can still be fished.
ASPA and Antarctic Conservation Act
Antarctic Specially protected areas are those rich in biodiversity/geology, and you can’t go into one without a permit. ACA stated that you can’t use/discharge pollutants, discharge wastes, import certain Antarctic items into the US, introduce non-indigenous species, enter an ASPA without a permit, take native mammals/birds without a permit (failure to adhere for US citizens will result in a massive fine)
Wilkes Station
Built during the IGY by U.S. navy. Contained an old radar dome and discarded/leaking fuel drums. It was turned over to Australia in 2001. They needed to bring it up to environmental protocol standards. It’s now mostly cleaned up.
US Antarctic services, US Antarctic Program (USAP)
USAS began in the IGY with continuous presence of the US in Antarctica since that time. USAP is the main agency today funded by congress as part of the national science foundation (NSF), maintains a website (10 years behind on updating) to meet the requirements of the Antarctic Treaty.
NSF Polar Program and antarctic funding budget
NSF is the main granting agency for scientists at universities and research institutions today. Polar program budge indicates the bulk of the costs are for logistical support.
Ratio of science to logistic costs, personnel
Bulk of costs are for logistical support. For Antarctic research over half the funding goes to McMurdo Station operations, 25-30% goes to scientific research. 9 personnel to every scientist.
IPY 07-08 and focus
Focused on global climate change an the role of polar regions in global climate
Antarctic treaty summit meeting on 50th anniversary 09
US celebrated 50th anniversary signing
Three challenges for having research stations in Antarctica
1) logistics (how to build, maintain, and power them plus food and water, waste disposal)
2) climate control (how to keep them at comfortable temperatures including types of insulation, orientation to wind, drifts, adapt to the environment, etc.)
3) comfort (not just temp, but space, working and sleeping facilities, toilets, quality of food and leisure)
first station on Laurie island
Built by William Bruce on Laurie Island, South Orkneys during the Scottish Expedition. It was built out of stone and established as a meteorological station and base for exploring. Turned over to Argentina.
Early prefab huts in heroic age and problems
Huts built by Borchgrevink, Scott, and Shackleton. Prefab huts were designed for rapid construction, durable but not always comfortable. If they were too ventilated wind/snow could seep in, but if they weren’t ventilated enough the hut would condensate. Snow can blow and collect on the leeward side or the roof and never melt. The Cape Evans hut was partitioned off separating the officers from the men (used crates as walls). It had a work area, and the photographer had a dark room.
little America advances in station organization and comfort
LAI was built during Byrd’s first flight. It had electricity, radio towers, and different buildings. Later LA had an administration building, bunk house, 3 radio antenna towers, a mess hall, hangers for airplanes, storage sheds, and a machine shop with first generator of electricity in Antarctica. They used crates between buildings to build tunnels to move safely in blizzards/darkness/fire escape.
Problems with Little America on the Ice Shelf
Overtime, gradual snow accumulation and melting from darker color of the station caused it to sink into the ice shelf. This also caused ventilation problems (could get CO poisoning from heating systems)
Halley Station & Development I-VI, design stages, problems
Built in 1956 on Brunt Ice shelf, wooden. Collected ozone data, but only lasted 7 years. The second iteration was a surface building with steel roof supports, lasted 10 years. Third iteration used subsurface steel tubing for longterm use, but it became too deep to safely access/ventilate, lasting 7 years. Halley IV was built with a curved roof, but still had snow drift piling up and blocking windows (important for mental stability) and vents, lasted 9 years. Halley V was built on jackable steel stilts so it was raised above the snow drift/didn’t sink, but it was abandoned after ice shelf movement brought it too close to the edge. Halley VI is still on jackable stilts but now it’s moveable, state of the art, color done for psychological stimulation. An ice chasm forced them to move the station sooner than expected
Amundsen-Scott Base (USA)
Built at the South Pole on the polar plateau, during IGY out of wood. Won’t move because it isn’t on an ice shelf, but will sink due to snow drift/dark coloration. It was eventually abandoned. The next station was built with a dome around it which caused ventilation problems (condensation, falling icycles, etc.) New base built 2009-2010 on jackable steel stilts (snow blows under it and can be raised several stories as it sinks).
Research Stations and Carbon Footprint
Greater for building in Antarctica than anywhere else in the world. Materials need to be brought to the continent from all over the world. Need to burn fuel to keep the stations heated, and waste disposal is an issue.
Waste disposal and problems
Early stations dumped waste into the sea, holes in ice or had garbage dumps on land. Caused a huge impact on the environment in the 70s at McMurdo. Huge trash dump attracted skuas who predate on penguins. Thinned the ozone.
Greenpeace and changes in waste disposal
Brought light to the issues (set up a base of their own) at McMurdo. New goal is to become 100% recyclable. Need to take a class to learn to properly sort recyclables. All burnables are retrograded by ship back to the U.S.
Development of Wind and Solar power at stations
Wind and Solar are becoming more common at all stations after environmental protocol of the antarctic treaty
Princess Elisabeth station (0 emission design)
A Belgium station and the first non-emission station. It has 9 wind turbines, 2 types of solar panels, 2 backup generators, an aerodynamic shape that faces the wind, stilts prevent snow accumulation and allows melt water drainage. Build with steel anchoring on bedrock, wooden structure, wall mods with 9 layers of wood, aluminum, felt, paper, insulation for minimal heat loss, air/water tight. All water is recycled five times before it’s disposed. Only a summer station currently with a life expectancy of 25 years
King George Island Stations and International Community
Palmer = US Rothea = British
High concentration on KGI because it’s the easiest access to antarctic lands from south america. If you want a vote on the treaty this is a good place to establish a station/hut
Copa Field Hut and design
USA on Admirality Bay (used to be a whaling base) near adelie/gentoo/chinstrap colonies. Summer only hut with roof drain to collect water, propane, penguin monitoring advice to alert when a tagged penguin is close to go pump stomach. Outdoor comode, used to burn toilet paper before EP, switch off cooking duties.
CASEY station (Australia) and design
One of the most comfortable stations located on oasis in EA. Large space with large windows, lounge area, well stocked kitchen with cook (get assigned kitchen duty), library, theatre, game room, bar, own rooms with internet, mechanical area, machine shop with haglands (good for moving on snow unless it’s warm weather)
Apple huts and ease of placement as field huts
CASEY station has apples (temp field sites for working/sleeping in the field) that are easy to move by helicopter
McMurdo station, design operations
USA, up to 2000 people in the summer, similar to a small town in Alaska. Airstrip on the ice shelf, many other stations use as a landing strip (exchanges between stations happen). Grary science lab (3 phases, each has labs, genetics to stable isotopes, with computers, sinks, and supply rooms). Get there on a C130 (not a comfortable flight, lasts 5-6 hours, if weather is bad you turn back)
Field camps, clothing issue, field training, risk assessment
Twin Otter airplanes take you to a field site with all camping gear (rent from McMurdo/Christchurch). Required to take snow school on ice near McMurdo overnight. Learn to use gear, build snow caves, use ice axes, build snow wall, rope/move across a glacier, crevass training, how to climb on ice shelf/slow down if you fall (get axe into snow), how to recognize/treat hypothermia (umbles), and snow blindness.
Scott Polar tents
Main tent for sleeping/gathering. Very effective at keeping wind out (pile snow at edges). Individual other tents for sleeping, greenhouse effect warms tents well.
Field camps risk assessment
isolation/darkness, safety/accidents, social/mental fatigue, paranoia, etc.
External impacts to antartcia
External non-direct impacts cannot be ignored (atmospheric changes, loss of ozone, long distance travel of pollutants and pesticides, global warming)
tourism and first proposed tour visits to antarctica
Tourism can be good (makes people aware/brings in funding) but also bad (disrupts the environment). Goes back to 1910 when the Thomas Cook agency in London advertised a tourist expedition, but cancelled it when Scott died. The first real expedition took place in the 1920s when a Falkland Mail Ship brought paying passengers to the South Shetland/Orkney islands to the whaling stations. In 1930 the NYT advertised a 142-day luxury cruise, but it never succeeded
Ingrid Christensen, first women to step onto the continent
In 1931 the first woman to visit Antarctica was Ingrid Christensen on resupply vessels to EA whaling fleets. She landed near where Davis Station (AUS) is now located. She had a coast named after her.
Edith Jackie Ronnie
The first woman with Jennie Darlington to winter over on the continent. They stayed on Ronnie Ice shelf in Stonne Bay on the Peninsula with the Ronnie Antarctic Research Expedition.
Air tourism by Chile, 1956
Chile completed the first air tourist flight over the South Shetland Islands with 66 passengers
Pan American flight to McMurdo, 1957
The first continental flight to land on Antarctica was a pan American flight from New Zealand to McMurdo Station in the Ross Sea.
Chile and argentina Tourism
More land based tourism started in the IGY when Chile and Argentina started bringing tourists to the South Shetlands, but never started a formal tourist operation.
Impacts before and during the IGY
Impacts up until the IGY were minimal (garbage from ships in the sea, garbage around stations/huts, some debris on ocean floor from sunken ships.) The IGY increased impacts considerably especially around military bases and large research stations (waste, abandoned vehicles, garbage). Despite the EP, this is still an issue in crowded areas such as King George Island.
Lars-Eric Lindbald and the MS Lindbald Explorer, 1969
Ship-based tourism has been growing annually since this first tour company. They made it a point to explore new areas, and stop at colonies/historical sites. Most tourists are wealthy so they can become ambassadors for Antarctica. As this company grew they began using zodiacs to work in waves/rough conditions and land on shores near high concentrations of whales.
Risks to tourists, risks to antarctic wildlife,
Some ships took risks and passengers died (ice floes breaking, too close to ablation zones, crossing Drake’s passage). Wastes can be harmful to the terrestrial/marine environment, tourists can bring accidental introduced species.
explore groundings
When exploring new areas sometimes the ship would run aground and require rescues from Chilean or Argentinean ships
Bahia Paravaiso sinking and impacts
Tour vessel from Argentina that hit rocks and sank near Palmer Station, Anvers Island in the AP. Fuel spilled damaged the local marine environment and caused some impact on nearby penguin and skua nesting areas.
Air New Zealand and Qantas Flights 1877-1979
Air tourism increased rapidly after Qanta and New Zealand began summer flights over Antarctica. Antarctic Treaty meeting passed a recommendation for concerns that there is no air traffic control or search and rescue for these flights.
Growth and trends of ship-based tourism 1990s-2000s
ncreased from 1055 in 1990-1991 to 45000 in 2007-2008 (dropped due to recession). Increased back to 45,000 for 2016-2017.
Establishment of IAAO and prupse
Founded to advance/promote the practice of safe and environmentally responsible private-sector travel to Antarctica (tourism was increasing and all wanted to give a quality tour, especially at AP hot spots). Over 100 companies agreed on AT guidelines (limit vists/overlapping tours to sensitive areas, prevent unnecessary disturbances of wildlife, share data). Lectures on the vessels help prevent introduced species. Banned use of drones by passengers 2016-2017.
Major nationalities of tourists in Antarctica
US has the most followed by Germany, Australia, China, UK, Canada, France & Switzerland, etc.
major types of tourist activities
Mainly small boat landing/cruising or ship cruising.
sinking of explorer 2007
Sinking of Explorer 2007
MS Explorer hit ice that punched a hole in its side and sank near King George Island. Everyone was rescued by other ships in the area. Subsequent fuel leaks dissipated with open water and currents. Potential for worse disasters remain.
antarctic treaty guidelines for tourism m2009
Due to increasing tourism, member nations at AT meetings passed a resolution to restrict visits:
No ship with 500 or more passengers could land
No more than 100 passengers may land at one time
One guide is required per 20 passengers on landings
Mr. Erebus crash of air New Zealand flight in 1979 and end of air tourism
In 1979 Air New Zealand crashed into Mt. Erebus killing all 257 aboard (human error, wrong CD disc had the wrong flight pattern, cloud cover limited depth perception, and they thought the white they were over was the ice shelf, not Ross Island). Area is now a dedicated memorial no fly zone. Qantas recently started flights again, and continue today.
impacts of tourist visits on penguin colonies, vegetation
Only a major problem if they cause major disturbances. Viewing a colony from a distance may cause increased HR in penguins/seals but has no adverse affect on reproductive success.
Trampling of sensitive vegetation and erosion can occur along with inadvertent carrying of small seeds, bacteria and algae from within/outside Antarctica on boots.
extreme tourism/impacts
People are going more into remote areas (snowboarding, skiing through transantarctic mountains, skydiving). Impacts to remote areas include helicopters disturbing emperor penguin colonies and debris. Rescues may be needed.
Introduced species Antarctica success on subantarctic islands vs continent
More introductions are on subantarctic islands where climate is more favorable for successful invasions by plants and animals. Insects and seeds of terrestrial species of plants can easily be accidentally transported.
why few invasive species survive in Antarctica (marine and terrestrial)
Properties of Antarctic circumpolar current, cold ocean waters and harsh terrestrial conditions prevent many introductions from being successful
invasive decapods, copepods
Endemic benthic fauna on continental shelf represents a food web that could collapse with introduced species. Decapods (King Crabs) are close to reaching this zone as ocean temperatures increase. Possible invasive copepods have been identified in the northern AP, perhaps carried by ships.
Ship ballast and introductions of marine sppecies
In Antarctica, marine species from ship’s ballast or attached to hulls can colonize bays.
seeds carried by tourists vs scientists and impacts
Study compared all people going to the south who volunteered to have their clothing/gear vacuumed for introduced species. Field scientists had more seeds, but there are more tourists going to more places (potential impact greater)
areas of greatest risk for establishment of invasive species
Sites frequently visited by tour ships (AP) and near research stations.
Poa Annua Bluegrass on king gorge island and spread
Established species can spread to less visited areas. Poa annua on KGI spread from a Polish station and has also independently arrived at 3 other stations. Spread increases with warming. Two more vascular plants/springtail species have invaded Deception Island.
Beginnings of fishers in the SO
Fisheries for fin fish and krill began increasing in the late 1960s and 1970s
Krill fishery and peak in 1982
By 1982 half a million tons of krill were being taken from the southern ocean
concerns by treaty countries and CCAMLR/establishment of CEMp and ecosystem monitoring
Concerns developed that fish/krill stocks were being depleted beyond recovery - impetus for creating CCAMLR (maintained/managed entire ecosystem to prevent overfishing by setting catch limits based on viable population numbers). They did this in part by applying standard fishery management, but also at the ecosystem level (CEMP). Used keystone species as a proxy for ecosystem health (krill & toothfish). Established sector numbers, 48 - SGI, S. Sand, S. Shet, 58, 88
Patagonian and Antarctic tooth fish distribution and exploitation
Patagonian toothfish is more northern, extends into other country’s territories (not monitored by CEMP). Antarctic toothfish falls within CCAMLR. Patagonian toothfish is the most valuable fishery in Antarctica. Antarctic toothfish is being hunted more as patagonian toothfish stocks deplete.
CCAMLR sectors for monitoring fish/krill stocks
48 = SGI, S. Sandwich, and S. Shetland. There are 13 legal fisheries in sectors where toothfish distribution falls.
History of tooth fish fishery, Chile to SAI and southern ocean
Had began off the coast of Chile where they “discovered” the Chilean Sea Bass - really a cod. The market was established by 1970s. Fishable populations were discovered near several subantarctic islands in the mid 1980s and spread rapidly to every sector of the southern ocean by the 1990s.
CCAMLR and total allowable catch (TAC)
By the late 1990s illegal fishing became more pronounced and steps were taken to reduce their impact (one year illegal take was estimated to equal legal limit). Reduced the impact by setting stock quotas & TAC based on estimated losses from illegal as well as legal fisheries.
Fishery population models
CCAMLR uses standard fishery population models to project population sizes in the future, setting TAC allowing for conservation and rational use.
Rise of illegal and unreported catches
No real way to tell if a fish was legal or illegal, so illegal, unregulated, and unreported catches of toothfish increased.
Trends in IUU catches 1990’s to 2000’s
Patagonia increased until 1996, but has been decreasing, which has caused an increase in Antarctic catches.
Catch documentation scheme
To address illegal, unregulated, and unreported catches toothfish, CCAMLR adopted a catch documentation scheme (all catches must be reported from point of landing through trade cycle to verify status)
reasons for reduction in illegal fishing
CDS allowed markets to see what they were buying. Numerous conservation organizations along with member nations joined in enforcement (seizures, fines, etc.) Most illegal activities have stopped by 2010.CDS allowed markets to see what they were buying. Numerous conservation organizations along with member nations joined in enforcement (seizures, fines, etc.) Most illegal activities have stopped by 2010.
the ross sea MPA, why it’s the “last ocean” and why MPA is “Pyrrhic victory”
Antarctic toothfish is now being fished in the Ross Sea (last ocean - untouched food web). Finally made an MPA in 2016 but there is no real protection/enforcement of it.
krill fishery, uses, catching methods, and problems
Krill exoskeletons are high in fluoride so they must be peeled and prepared quickly after catch (under three hours) as enzymes will breakdown and taint the meat. Large funnel nets will compress krill and lose their oil (ruins them). Used for fish food, color, bait, oils, small % of human consumption.
Growth of fishery and major countries involved
Krill fishery began with the soviet union in the 1960s followed by Poland, Chile and South Korea. Now, Norway has the largest one. U.S., China and Japan are also involved.
Krill as an underexploited stock
Current quota set at 8.6 million (lower in areas where wildlife are dependent). One of the most underexploited stocks due to remoteness of Antarctica/cost of fishing/difficulties in using krill as a product. Both technologies and krill uses are improving. The fishery is expected to grow as others deplete.
continuous pumping method
Prevents loss of krill being crushed in back of funnel net
CCAMLR, acoustic surveys, and TAC for krill
Since 2003, CCAMLR has required a notification of any new fishing vessels in convention waters. Helps keep track of total catch. Use acoustic surveys to divide convention areas into zones where catch limit varies by zone.
Trends in krill ptterns
Krill Products and patents for new products are increasing every year, mainly for medical uses. Krill oil high in fatty acid content can be used to treat various medical conditions such as heart and liver disease. Promoted for omega-3 oils, brain health, fish food, freeze-dried human food, join formula for arthritis. As fish stocks and oil products decline, krill is becoming a more sought after product by the fisheries.
Loss of krill surplus and future concern for antarctic marine ecosystem
SW atlantic receives most fishing and eclines in sea and warming in AP allows vessels to extend the season (more daylight).
Can collapse the ecosystems that depend on krill at the bottom of the food chain.
