exam 4 Flashcards
true or false: many animals communicate with one another
true
some animals suspected of having language potential:
great apes, cetaceans, parrots, dogs
gene related to language
FoxP2
FoxP2 location
on chromosome 7
FoxP2 mutation associated with
disrupted speech production and comprehension
link between KE family FoxP2 mutation and abnormality in this area
caudate nucleus and putamen (basal ganglia) -has to do with procedural stuff-
FoxP2 is a transcription factor, meaning …
it regulates expression of many other genes (has ripple effects)
humans have a site for phosphorylation by
protein kinase C (PKC)
activation of PKC may phosphorylate FoxP2 and cause downstream changes in regulation/production of other proteins. T or F?
true
FoxP2 knock-outs (in mice) led to
- developmental delays
- deficits in ultrasonic vocalizations
- altered basal ganglia
Humanized FoxP2 knock-ins (in mice) led to
- generally healthy
- different USV
- less exploratory behavior
- less dopamine
- increased dendrite length and synaptic plasticity in basal ganglia
mice with humanized FoxP2 exhibited
enhanced ability to make transitions from a declarative to a procedural mode of learning
a language learned at a young age is retained better. T or F?
true
infants younger than 8 months can
distinguish all speech sounds
by 11 months can distinguish
only native language
bilingualism seems to be associated w a number of positive outcomes. such as …
- children perform better on tests of executive control
- higher density of gray matter
- associated w a delay in the onset of age-related dementia
serious speech deficit that renders a person unable to communicate effectively; caused by damage to the brain
aphasia
most common cause for aphasias =
strokes
type of aphasia:
lack of ability to speak clearly
Broca’s aphasia (aka productive or generative aphasia)
type of aphasia:
speech is rapid and fluent but meaningless
Wernicke’s aphasia
type of aphasia:
speech remains fluent, and comprehension is fairly food, difficulty repeating speech
conduction aphasia
type of aphasia:
los of all language functions
global aphasia
type of aphasia:
fluent, grammatical speech, but comprehension is impaired
transcortical aphasia
language area in the left inferior frontal gyrus
Broca’s area
difficulty retrieving correct words for ideas they wish to express
anomia
- speech production and writing deficits
- speech is slow and effortful
- anomia
- comprehension intact
- singing still intact
broca’s aphasia
located just below superior temporal gyrus
Wernicke’s area
- comprehension for both spoken and written word impaired
- speech is rapid and fluent but virtually meaningless
- seem unaware they make no sense
- neologisms common
Wernicke’s aphasia
mash up words together that don’t normally go together
neologisms
damage to arcuate fasciculus causes difficulties with repetition of sentences
conduction aphasia
- dorsolateral PFC and SMA damage
- affects higher cognitive and attentional functions related to language production
- initiation of speech disrupted
- unable to produce verbs related to particular nouns (e.g., car - drive)
transcortical motor aphasia
intersection of temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
- affects ability to understand meaning of words
- speech is grammatical and fluent, strong repetition
- echolalia (repeating questions rather than answering)
transcortical sensory aphasia
recovery from aphasia
- the younger you are the more/better you improve/recover
- most improvement in 1st year
language production and comprehension almost always in _______ hemisphere
left
right hemisphere can take over functions if damage occurs early in life
______ hemisphere usually plays role in prosody
right
musical quality of language (ex raising pitch at end of sentence to ask a question)
prosody
intonation, emphasis, and rhythm to convey meaning
prosody
3 language models:
- Wernicke’-Geschwind model
- contemporary model
- dual stream models
language model:
Broca’s area is responsible for speech, Wernicke’s area is responsible for comprehension
Wernicke-Geschwind model
language model:
- three interacting components
- language implementation, mediational system, conceptual system
Contemporary model
language model:
ventral and dorsal pathway for language processing
dual stream models
dual stream language models:
dorsal stream
-interfaces sensory/phonological networks with motor-articulatory systems
dual stream language models:
ventral stream
-interface sensory/phonological networks with conceptual semantic systems
reading impairments
alexia
writing impairments
agraphia
inability to spell or write
damage to motor control areas
agraphia
unable to sound out new, nonsense, or difficult words
phonological agraphia
can’t form visual images of words to be spelled but can spell only phonetically (e.g., phone = fone)
orthographic agraphia
- impairment in reading despite normal intelligence and exposure
- 10-30% of population
- high heritability: 40% chance sibling is also dyslexic
- difficulty discriminating rapidly presented stimuli
dyslexia
-visual-perceptual difficulties (reading a word backwards, confusing mirror image letters, trouble fixating on printed words)
symptoms of dyslexia
dyslexia in the brain: planum temporale
does NOT show typical hemispheric asymmetry
dyslexia in the brain:
cells in planum temorale lack normal layering and arrangement of columns, may have migrated into superficial layer. T or F?
true
- producing repetitions or prolonging of sounds
- primarily genetic in origin
stuttering
stuttering treatments
- reducing rates at which speech is produced and stress associated w the disorder
- learning special breathing techniques, soft voice onsets, and prolongation of syllables
- dopamine antagonists (aimed at basal ganglia)
schizophrenia and language
many symptoms associated w interpretation and organization of language
schizophrenia and language:
creating/contracting new words for complex ideas
neologisms
schizophrenia and language:
unintelligible mixture of words and phrases
word salad
schizophrenia and language:
pathological repetition of the same response for different questions
perserveration
schizophrenia and language:
using words similar in sound, but not meaning
clang associations
schizophrenia and language:
repeating of words or phrases of one person by another
echolalia
positive effect of an object or condition has on the user
reward
major reward pathway
mesolimbocortical dopamine system
mesocortical pathway
VTA to PFC
burst of activity of the VTA during an
unexpected reward
burst of spike activity =
high levels of dopamine release
burst activity of the VTA predicting reward
increases attention toward stimuli that signals rewards
burst activity in VTA decreases with delay: no or short delay
highest firing and dopamine release from VTA
burst activity in VTA decreases with delay: long delay
lower firing and dopamine from VTA
dopamine and instant gratification
dopamine –> more impulsive decisions / short term gain over waiting for a larger reward
the mesolimbic pathway
VTA to NA via MFB
large white matter contracting fibers from: VTA to NA
- olfactory regions
- peri-amygdalaloid regions
- septal area
medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
one of hottest reward areas
MFB
stimulation of brain areas can cause pleasure. T or F?
true
electric self-stimulation of mesolimbic pathway related to
dopamine
if dopamine antagonist infused to nucleus accumbens, then reward effect of self-stimulation of MFB (or VTA) is
blocked
“the pleasure center”
nucleus accumbens
drugs of abuse increase dopamine in
nucleus accumbens
human participants: stimulation of septal area
intense, pleasant sexual feelings
human participants:
stimulation of medial thalamus
unpleasant tactile irritation
the intentional initiation of hostile or destructive acts toward another individual
-when not inhibited violence can result
aggression
genetics and aggression
-can be bred in animals
-within-species aggression related to dominance
T or F
true
- attacks to kill (w/ the intent to harm)
- against diff species for food
- few vocalizations, attack head or neck
- no activity in sympathetic nervous system
predatory aggression
- just for show (“all bark, no bite”)
- intimidation. does not kill for food
- makes vocalizations, threatening posture
- high levels of sympathetic nervous system activity
affective aggression
removal of cerebral hemispheres but not hypothalamus causes
sham rage
constant aggression mode =
sham rage
stimulation of medial hypothalamus causes
affective aggression
stimulation of lateral hypothalamus causes
predatory aggression
stimulation of amygdala can cause aggression (including some temporal lobe seizures) T or F?
true
damage to amygdala causes
tameness/calmness
-Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
T or F: drug and alcohol use is strongly associated with human aggression
true
alcohol reduces the inhibition of aggression normally managed by the __________ and _________ cortices
cingulate and frontal cortices
___________ increases reactivity to threatening stimuli
testosterone
T or F: prenatal exposure to testosterone is correlated w higher aggressiveness
true
decreased ____________ in amygdala correlated w increased aggression in rats
serotonin
lower serotonin —>
more aggression
low serotonin =
lower inhibition
serotonin associated with
empathy
rhesus monkeys low in social hierarchy had _____ levels of serotonin compared to dominant monkeys
low
does brain damage cause aggression?
in some cases, maybe
does mental illness cause aggression?
doubtful
subjective experiences that arise spontaneously and unconsciously in response to internal and external events
emotion
psychological component of emotions
“feelings” accompanied by characteristic behavior or facial expression
physiological component of emotions
increase or decrease in activity levels
individual differences influences on emotion
- overall level of reactivity differs
- temperament
environmental influences on emotion
presence of others influences intensity of emotional expression
two continuums of emotions
- valence (pos or neg)
- arousal level
primary emotions (6)
- happiness
- sadness
- anger
- fear
- disgust
- surprise
3 components of emotion
- autonomic response
- subjective feelings
- cognitions about the experience
emotion autonomic response
increased heart rate
-hypothalamus and associated structures
emotion subjective feelings
fear
-amygdala and part of frontal lobes
emotion cognitions about the experience
cerebral cortex
blood vessels in face feed back temperature and muscle info to the brain, altering our experience of emotion
- smiling makes you happier
- frowning makes you more sad
facial feedback hypothesis
motor cranial nerves involved in facial expression
- VII (facial)
- V (trigeminal)
cranial nerve VII (facial)
superficial muscles attached to skin
cranial nerve V (trigeminal)
deep muscles attached to bones of head
facial nerve nuclei located
in pons near midline
2 pathways control expressions
- voluntary
- spontaneous/involuntary
voluntary control of expression
- contralateral motor cortex
- forced or fake smile (choose to smile)
spontaneous/involuntary control of expression
-basal ganglia
-genuine happy smile
(reflexive smile)
T or F: blind and sighted individuals produce same facial response to winning/losing
true, meaning this isn’t a learned response
specific pattern of autonomic arousal leads to specific emotions
the James-Lange Theory of emotion
physiological arousal contributes to emotion’s intensity, while identity of emotion is based on cognitive appraisal
the Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory
- almond-shaped collection of nuclei located within the limbic system
- plays a role in emotional behaviors
amygdala
receives input from all sensory systems, anterior cingulate cortex, hippocampus
amygdala
sends projections primarily to frontal and temporal lobes, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, brainstem
amygdala
stimulation of amygdala
produces fear and anxiety
damage to amygdala
difficulty identifying fear and anger
imaging of amygdala
more active when viewing expressions of fear
chemistry of amygdala
contains many benzodiazepine receptors (anxiolytics)
behavior of amygdala
involved in fear conditioning
pathology of amygdala
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome reduces fear
bilateral temporal lobectomy
- decreased emotional reactivity
- hyper-orality: putting random things in mouth
- hyper-sexuality
kulver-bucy syndrome
roles in emotion, attention, cognitive processing, consciousness
anterior cingulate cortex
gateway between limbic structures and PFC
anterior cingulate cortex
active when we express our emotions
same regions activated by physical and emotional pain
anterior cingulate cortex
contributes to social behavior; damage may be implicated in sociopathy
anterior cingulate cortex
- inability to experience and express their own emotions and to recognize the emotional expression of others
- apathy and loss of initiative or drive
- inability to plan and organize, leading to poor decision-making
effects of prefrontal cortex damage on emotional behavior
major subareas of this include orbitofrontal and ventromedial cortexes
the prefrontal cortex
right hemisphere processes emotional facial expression better and faster
true, so left side = more attractive
- very strong belief that a loved one has been replaced with an identical imposter
- visual recognition without emotional connection
- no SCR, no arousal
capgras delusion
a condition in the environment that makes unusual demands on the organism and strains ability to cope effectively
stress
an unpleasant and disruptive state resulting from the perception of danger or threat
once danger has been perceived and identified, a predictable series of reactions is set into motion
stress
_______ is caused by an existing stress-causing factor or stressor
stress
________ is stress that continues ager the stressor is gone
anxiety
stress response includes activation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, which is largely under control of the
hypothalamus
stress hormones
norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol
norepinephrine and epinephrine stress hormones
- increase output from heart
- liberate glucose from muscles for additional energy
cortisol stress hormone
- increases energy by converting proteins to glucose, increasing fat availability, and increasing metabolism
- long-term energy increase for sustained stress
responds very quickly to a stressor by releasing epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands into the circulation
sympathetic adrenal medullary (SAM system)
results in the release of cortisol by the adrenal glands
the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis
long term effects of cortisol
increases amount of calcium entering cells
increases amount of neurotransmitter released
T or F: too much calcium can be excitotoxic to neurons and cause apoptosis (cell death)
neurons in hippocampus are particularly likely to die
true
the body’s defense against malignant cells or invading bacteria, viruses, and other potentially illness-producing organisms (pathogens) and substances (antigens)
immune system
________ stress may be beneficial
acute
increases cells and cell products that kill infected and malignant cells and protect the body against foreign substances, including bacteria and viruses
may increase neurogenesis
acute stress
negative effects of stress
colds
people are more likely to get a cold (rhinovirus) when significantly stressed
social support can help offer protection
________ or prolonged stress compromises the immune system
chronic
the cardiovascular system is particularly vulnerable to stress. T or F?
true
stress increases blood pressure, and prolonged high BP can damage the heart or cause a stroke. T or F
true
good stress management
maintain good health habits
face to face social networking
cognitive restructuring
good stress management: good health habits:
sleep
balanced diet
aerobic exercise
a specialty field within clinical psychology that seeks to understand and treat patients w cognitive impairments
neuropsychology
headache: pain is behind browbone and/or cheekbones
sinus headache
headache: pain is in and around one eye
cluster headache
headache: pain is like a band squeezing the head
tension headache
headache: pain, nausea and visual changes are typical of classic form
migraine
sinus headache linked to
environment
cluster headache linked to
circadian rhythm
tension headache linked to
stress
migraines linked to
neurovascular pressure/serotonin
migraines impacts 28% of population and is a neurovascular disorder. T or F?
True
characterized by recurrent headaches. usually accompanied by nausea, vomiting, photophobia and/or phonophobia. preceded by aura.
can be triggered by specific stimuli in environment
migraines
migraines: vascular theory
increased blood flow in brain distends blood vessels, which exert pressure on surrounding tissue
migraines: serotonin theory
serotonin acts to constrict blood vessels = reduced levels of serotonin, more blood flow
both migraines and depression are more common in men or women?
women
both migraines and depression are linked to reduced ___________
serotonin
migraine treatments
- OTC pain relief
- SSRIs and Triptans (5HT receptor agonists)
- behavioral changes and avoiding triggers can decrease frequency and severity
brain is about 2% of body mass but uses how much of blood?
about 16%
a stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either:
- cerebral hemorrhage
- the sudden blockage of a blood vessel
what falls under cerebral hemorrhage?
aneurysms
what falls under the sudden blockage of a blood vessel?
- ischemia and transient ischemic attacks
- infarct / penumbra
- thrombosis vs embolism
bursting of a blood vessel
aneurysms
type of stroke:
- about 20% of cases
- caused by high BP and vascular abnormalities
- usually fatal
hemorrhage
type of stroke:
- about 80% of cases
- caused by arteriosclerosis and blood clots
- outcomes = infarct of varying size and changes in consciousness, sensation, and movement
ischemia
cerebral hemorrhage may result from:
- hypertension (high BP)
- structural defects in blood vessels
- aneurysms rupturing
- blood diseases like leukemia
description of hemorrhages:
inside brain
intracerebral
description of hemorrhages:
in middle of meninges
subarachnoid
description of hemorrhages:
between dura and brain
subdural
description of hemorrhages:
between dura and skull
epidural
blockage of CNS vasculature leads to ________, or low oxygen levels (80% of all strokes)
may lead to the death of neural tissue
ischemia
death of neural tissue
infarct
causes of ischemic events:
a clot that stays at point of origin
thrombosis
causes of ischemic events:
a clot that passes to smaller vessels until it stops
embolism
core region of tissue death due to lack of oxygen. early damage < 6 mins
infarct
area of neural tissue susceptible to damage that surrounds an infarct. delayed damage. (area of secondary damage)
penumbra
what is a mini-stroke
- transient ischemic attacks: stroke symptoms lasting < 24 hours
- caused by temporary state of reduced blood flow in a portion of the brain
transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)
stroke symptoms lasting < 24 hours
standard treatments for vascular accidents
- blood thinners
- exercise/diet changes
new treatments to reduce excitotoxicity to decrease penumbra
- block glutamate (antagonist or Mg)
- hypothermia for 48-72 hours by 4 degrees C
head injuries:
- traumatic brain injuries (open head injuries and concussions)
- chronic traumatic brain injuries (chronic traumatic encephalopathy)
concussion coup =
point of impact that hits first
concussion countercoup =
reverberating force on opposite side of brain than the primary coup.
concussion and neuronal damage
may result in hematoma and white matter damage
symptoms of a concussion (varies)
- headache or a feeling of pressure in the head
- temporary loss of consciousness
- confusion or feeling as if in a fog
- amnesia surrounding the traumatic event
- dizziness
- ringing in ears
- nausea or vomiting
- slurred speech
- fatigue
permanent damage from repeated mild head injuries, resulting in slurred speech, memory impairment, personality changes, lack of coordination, and Parkinson-like syndromes
chronic traumatic encephalopathy
E4 variant of APOE gene may make people more vulnerable to
CBTI
and Alzheimer’s disease
E4 is about 15% in population
true
independent growth of new tissue that lacks purpose
tumor
type of tumor likely to return after removal
malignant
occurs when malignant tumors shed cells that grow tumors in other areas
metastasis
tumors are not likely to recur after removal, do not metastasize
benign
types of brain tumors:
develop in glial cells. >70% of brain tumors
gliomas
types of brain tumors:
are typically encapsulated and generally do not recur following surgery
meningiomas
treatment of brain tumors
- surgical removal
- chemotherapy
- thalidomide to starve tumors of blood supply
- angiogenesis inhibitors
- delivery of stem cells with anticancer genes
- radiation via gamma knife
