exam 4 Flashcards
The term “mental lexicon” refers: a) primarily to the words of language. b) primarily to the rules of language. c) both to the words and to the rules of language. d) to neither the words nor the rules of language.
a) primarily to the words of language. Page Ref: 350
“Bridget stayed up until 3:00 on Wednesday night watching news coverage of the election.” You have never heard this sentence before. However because of the language design feature of ________ you are able to understand the meaning of each of the words.. a) discreteness b) reflectiveness c) semanticity d) productivity
c) semanticity Page Ref: 350
American Sign Language (unlike spoken language) is NOT characterized by which design feature? a) productivity b) arbitrariness c) reflectiveness d) semanticity
b) arbitrariness Page Ref: 350-351
The design feature of language that allows us to communicate ideas that are remote in space and time is: a) discreteness. b) specialization. c) productivity. d) displacement.
d) displacement. Page Ref: 351
You are taking a test about language. Your ability to think about language in order to complete the test is an example of which design feature? a) productivity b) arbitrariness c) reflectiveness d) semanticity
c) reflectiveness Page Ref: 351
Which design feature of language could also be termed creativity? a) productivity b) arbitrariness c) specialization d) semanticity
a) productivity Page Ref: 351
When children lie and deceive their parents to keep out of trouble, they are using which design feature of language? a) arbitrariness b) specialization c) displacement d) prevarication
d) prevarication Page Ref: 351
Which of the following design features of language do animal communication systems possess, at least to some extent? a) prevarication b) semanticity c) productivity d) displacement
b) semanticity Page Ref: 352
Although Alex the parrot is quite adept at naming objects, critics are uncertain whether the labels he uses truly represent that object in his mind. That is, they question whether his use of the labels is truly: a) accurate. b) reflective. c) referential. d) productive.
c) referential. Page Ref: 354
In their research with Kanzi and other bonobo chimps, Savage-Rumbaugh and colleagues have investigated whether language can be acquired in the form of: a) American Sign Language. b) Braille. c) motioning. d) lexigrams.
d) lexigrams. Page Ref: 355
Cross-fostering studies would be best represented by the word/phrase: a) contrived. b) natural. c) artificial. d) formal instruction.
b) natural. Page Ref: 355
The most impressive evidence that animals are indeed capable of learning language comes from the research done with: a) Kanzi. b) Alex. c) Rockie. d) Washoe.
a) Kanzi. Page Ref: 355-356
All of following statements are true of research with Kanzi, except: a) Kanzi needed intense and explicit training to begin extensive use of language symbols. b) Kanzi started using signs spontaneously. c) Kanzi generated thousands of utterances that followed syntactic rules. d) Kanzi made up his own grammatical rules.
a) Kanzi needed intense and explicit training to begin extensive use of language symbols. Page Ref: 355-356
Some African languages allow two consonants to appear together at the beginning of a word (as in Nkomo); English does not allow this to occur unless the first consonant is an “s” (as in skull). This example illustrates a difference in the ______ of the two languages. a) morphology b) syntax c) phonology d) semantics
c) phonology Page Ref: 359
_______ represents a phonetic difference (but not a phonemic difference). a) The “g” in dog and the “g” in log b) The “d” in dog and the “l” in log c) The “t” in pit and the “th” in with d) The “p” in pit and the “s” in sit
a) The “g” in dog and the “g” in log Page Ref: 360
Place of articulation is to manner of articulation as ________ is to ________. a) release; vibration b) vocal cords; air flow c) interrupt; stop d) where; how
d) where; how Page Ref: 360-361
The phoneme /p/ is termed bilabial; the phoneme /th/ is termed dental. The two italicized terms refer to: a) phones. b) voicing. c) manner of articulation. d) place of articulation.
d) place of articulation. Page Ref: 360-361
Aspects of the speech signal like rate, stress, and tone, are termed: a) categorical factors b) suprasegmental factors c) phones d) coarticulation factors
b) suprasegmental factors Page Ref: 362
The /t/ sound in the word “tip” has different phonetic properties than the /t/ sound in “tap.” This demonstrates _______. In spite of this phenomenon, we tend to hear the /t/ sound in these words as ______. a) categorical perception; invariant b) categorical perception; variable c) coarticulation; variable d) coarticulation; invariant
d) coarticulation; invariant Page Ref: 363
Our tendency to perceive phonemes in a relatively broad fashion, not discriminating between subtle shadings in the way particular phonemes sound is termed: a) coarticulation. b) suprasegmentation c) categorical perception. d) semantic parsing.
c) categorical perception. Page Ref: 363
The phomemic restoration effect is often cited as evidence for the role of ______ in ______. a) top-down processing; speech perception b) top-down processing; speech production c) bottom-up processing; speech perception d) bottom-up processing; speech production
a) top-down processing; speech perception Page Ref: 365
A ______ is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning. a) phone b) phoneme c) morpheme d) word
c) morpheme Page Ref: 367
The word unhappiness has ____ bound morphemes and ____ free morphemes. a) 1; 2 b) 2; 1 c) 1; 1 d) 2; 2
b) 2; 1 Page Ref: 365
Gricean maxims (Grice’s maxims) in language indicate that our conversational partners should conform to all of the following EXCEPT: a) avoidance of ambiguity. b) relevance. c) grammatical correctness. d) truthfulness.
c) grammatical correctness. Ref: 385-386
Which of these describes the bottom-up processes in reading? a) Reading is aided by expectations. b) Reading is aided by context. c) Reading is aided by other words. d) Reading requires analysis of the printed symbols.
d) Reading requires analysis of the printed symbols. Page Ref: 401
Saccades are to fixations as ________ is to________. a) eye movements; hand movements b) reading; listening c) non-informational; informational d) backward; forward
c) non-informational; informational Page Ref: 402
Word fixations typically last around ____. a) 2 seconds b) 1 second c) ¾ second d) ¼ second
d) ¼ second Page Ref: 402
A word like power is termed a ______ word, and the likelihood we would fixate on it during reading is about _____. a) content; 40% b) content; 80% c) function; 40% d) function; 80%
b) content; 80% Page Ref: 403
A word like the is termed a ______ word, and the likelihood we would fixate on it during reading is about _____. a) content; 40% b) content; 80% c) function; 40% d) function; 80%
c) function; 40% Page Ref: 403
High frequency words like robin receive _____ fixation as/than low-frequency words like penguin. a) the same amount of b) more c) less
c) less Page Ref: 403
Word-skipping data indicate that: a) low frequency words are more likely to be skipped than are high-frequency words. b) word length is the best predictor of whether a word will be skipped or not. c) highly constrained words are less likely to be skipped. d) content words are more likely to be skipped than are function words.
b) word length is the best predictor of whether a word will be skipped or not. Page Ref: 402-404
Regressive saccades: a) only occur in poor readers. b) constitute about 1/2 of all saccades. c) are symptomatic of reading difficulties, but aren’t the cause. d) have the same characteristics in good and poor readers
c) are symptomatic of reading difficulties, but aren’t the cause. Page Ref: 404
Perceptual span (for English) is about ________ characters to the left, and ________ characters to the right. a) 3; 15 b) 6; 10 c) 15; 3 d) 10; 6
a) 3; 15 Page Ref: 404-405
All of the following are functions of the blank spaces between words except: a) they allow the reader a split second to rest. b) they help indicate the length of upcoming words. c) they provide information about the length of words currently being read. d) they make words physically easier to see.
a) they allow the reader a split second to rest. Page Ref: 406
A study by Van Orden (1987) had participants perform a category verification task. Participants were presented with a category name (e.g., food), followed by one of three types of stimuli: (1) a category member, like meat; (2) a homophone of a member of the category, like meet, or (3) a word with orthography similar to a category member, like melt. Participants tended to miscategorize items (make errors) from ________ most frequently, supporting the ________ access view of word recognition. a) condition one; direct b) condition three; direct c) condition two; indirect d) condition three; indirect
c) condition two; indirect Page Ref: 407
Luo, Johnson, & Gallo (1998) tested whether “pseudohomophones” (e.g., “brane”) would show effects of semantic relatedness. In other words, would the letter string “brane” prime a related concept (e.g., neuron)? What did they find?
a) That access to the mental lexicon was most probably direct.
b) Pseudohomophones primed only the actual word (e.g., “brain,” in this example).
c) Pseudohomophones did not prime related concepts.
d) Pseudohomophones did prime related concepts.
d) Pseudohomophones did prime related concepts.
Page Ref: 407
Dyslexics have particular trouble:
a) reading words in the correct order.
b) recognizing words when they hear them.
c) mapping the look of a word onto its sound.
d) performing normally on standard measures of intelligence.
c) mapping the look of a word onto its sound.
Page Ref: 409
All of the following statements are true of dyslexia except:
a) it’s typically something a child outgrows.
b) it’s characterized by poor spelling.
c) it’s a problem mapping orthography to the sounds of words.
d) it’s characterized by a decreased phonological awareness.
a) it’s typically something a child outgrows.
Page Ref: 409
The “neural signature” of dyslexia seems to be impaired processing in the brain’s:
a) frontal-temporal regions.
b) occipito-temporal regions.
c) frontal lobe.
d) parietal lobe.
b) occipito-temporal regions.
Page Ref: 410
The importance of indirect access in word recognition would seem to imply that the best approach to teaching children to read is the ________ approach. Research evidence ________.
a) phonics; fails to support this
b) phonics; supports this
c) whole-word; fails to support this
d) whole-word; supports this
b) phonics; supports this
Page Ref: 410
_____ refers to the processes involved in arriving at some conclusion under conditions of uncertainty and risk.
a) Decision making
b) Problem solving
c) Judgment
d) Reasoning
a) Decision making
Page Ref: 447
_______ involves evaluation of a conclusion based solely on given information.
a) Decision making
b) Problem solving
c) Judgment
d) Reasoning
d) Reasoning
Page Ref: 447
A normative approach to the analysis of reasoning and decision making _____, while a descriptive approach to the analysis of reasoning and decision making _______.
a) describes how we should think in a given situation; describes how we do think in these situations
b) describes how we do think in a given situation; describes how we should think in these situations
c) is irrational; is rational
d) is rational; is irrational
a) describes how we should think in a given situation; describes how we do think in these situations
Page Ref: 448
The notion that there are limits to our powers of reasoning, judgment, and decision making is termed:
a) deductive reasoning.
b) inductive reasoning.
c) bounded rationality.
d) expected utility.
c) bounded rationality.
Page Ref: 449
According to the dual-process view of reasoning, judgment and decision making, which mode of thinking operates relatively slowly, deliberately and in a controlled manner?
a) heuristic mode
b) rational mode
c) bounded mode
d) analytic mode
d) analytic mode
Page Ref: 449-450
Deductive reasoning problems have all of the following characteristics except for:
a) going from general to specific.
b) very little constraint.
c) the application of algorithms for solution.
d) premises and conclusions.
b) very little constraint.
Page Ref: 451-453
In a valid syllogism:
a) the conclusion follows from the premises.
b) the premises are true.
c) the conclusion is true.
d) all of the above are true.
a) the conclusion follows from the premises.
Page Ref: 452
Conditional reasoning:
a) is a synonym for syllogistic reasoning.
b) is a form of inductive reasoning.
c) involves evaluating the validity of premises.
d) features an if-then form.
d) features an if-then form.
Page Ref: 453
If it rains tomorrow, then I’m not going to the baseball game. I did not go to the baseball game. So, it must have rained. This type of argument is termed _______, and the conclusion (it must have rained) is ________.
a) denying the antecedent; invalid
b) denying the consequent; valid
c) affirming the consequent; invalid
d) affirming the antecedent; valid
c) affirming the consequent; invalid
Page Ref: 453
Affirming the antecedent is also called ______, and is a(n) ______ form.
a) modus ponens; valid
b) modus ponens; invalid
c) modus tollens; valid
d) modus tollens; invalid
a) modus ponens; valid
Page Ref: 453-454
Denying the consequent is also called ______, and is a(n) ______ form.
a) modus ponens; valid
b) modus ponens; invalid
c) modus tollens; valid
d) modus tollens; invalid
c) modus tollens; valid
Page Ref: 453-454
A friend heard somebody say, “If you are overweight, you are likely to smoke.” This friend interprets this statement as, “If you smoke, then you are likely to be overweight.” What kind of error is apparent in this example?
a) inappropriate interpretation of an if-then statement as biconditional
b) belief-bias effect
c) attempts at confirming an hypothesis
d) denying the antecedent
a) inappropriate interpretation of an if-then statement as biconditional
Page Ref: 454
The classic Watson Selection Task is a(n) _____ reasoning task.
a) deontic
b) conditional
c) normative
d) syllogistic
b) conditional
Page Ref: 455
People often fail to choose correctly on the Watson Selection Task because they resist:
a) affirming the antecedent.
b) confirmatory evidence.
c) disconfirmatory evidence.
d) affirming the consequent.
c) disconfirmatory evidence.
Page Ref: 456
Myside bias is a more specific form of what general bias?
a) the atmosphere effect
b) modus ponens
c) fallacy of affirming the consequent
d) confirmation bias
d) confirmation bias
Page Ref: 457
Inductive reasoning:
a) involves reasoning from specific instances to a general rule.
b) leads to a certain conclusion.
c) involves using premises to justify a conclusion.
d) is often associated with a bias to avoid confirming evidence.
a) involves reasoning from specific instances to a general rule.
Page Ref: 458
If people are told that turkeys are susceptible to disease A, they aren’t really that likely to believe that all birds are susceptible to disease A. However, if they are told that robins are susceptible to disease A, they are likely to believe that all birds are susceptible. This is called a ________, and is an instance of _______ reasoning.
a) diversity effect; deductive
b) diversity effect; inductive
c) typicality effect; deductive
d) typicality effect; inductive
d) typicality effect; inductive
Page Ref: 460
When we make judgments, we often have to do so in the absence of information or computational skill. Because of this, we must often rely on:
a) problem space.
b) algorithms.
c) heuristics.
d) premises.
c) heuristics.
Page Ref: 462
In your book’s example, you read a list of names and then tried to recall how many started with J; if you tended to overestimate the number of “J names,” it was probably due to the effects of _______ on the use of the _______ heuristic.
a) frequency; availability
b) familiarity; availability
c) stereotyping; representativeness
d) salience; representativeness
b) familiarity; availability
Page Ref: 463
When you ask people what caused more deaths — accidents and homicides or strokes and diabetes — people will guess accidents and homicides, even though it’s strokes and diabetes (and it’s not even really close). This is most likely due to:
a) the availability heuristic.
b) confirmatory bias.
c) the representativeness heuristic.
d) an atmosphere effect.
a) the availability heuristic.
Page Ref: 464
Vivid news reports that highlight the danger of serial killers, terrorist threats, and toxic substances in food may heighten public concern beyond a level that’s reasonable, due to:
a) hindsight bias.
b) the representativeness heuristic.
c) an atmosphere effect.
d) the availability heuristic.
d) the availability heuristic.
Page Ref: 464
The more recently something has happened, the _____ likely it is to affect our judgment, due to _______.
a) less; an atmosphere effect
b) more; the availability heuristic
c) more; anchoring effects
d) less; the representativeness heuristic
b) more; the availability heuristic
Page Ref: 466
Our tendency to avoid situations in which many people may be killed while simultaneously being relatively impervious to risky situations in which deaths are more spread out is termed:
a) Anchoring.
b) Fatality Fear.
c) Dread Risk.
d) Fatal Risk Assessment
c) Dread Risk.
Page Ref: 466
Coincidences are extremely striking, and often lead people to believe in ________. The ease with which we think of coincidences makes them important players in the ______ heuristic.
a) illusory correlations; availability
b) illusory correlations; representativeness
c) stereotypes; availability
d) stereotypes; representativeness
a) illusory correlations; availability
Page Ref: 467
The “Madden jinx” is the purported tendency for a person to perform poorly after being touted on the yearly version of the popular video game. Our perception of this outcome as a “jinx” is due to:
a) confirmation bias.
b) our ignorance of regression toward the mean.
c) superstition bias.
d) a hindsight bias.
b) our ignorance of regression toward the mean.
Page Ref: 467-468
People tend to ignore the base rate of some occurrence in the population in making their judgments. For example, they assume anyone over 6’6” must have played a lot of basketball, even thought the majority of individuals have not played much basketball. This is a prime example of:
a) regression to the mean.
b) the availability heuristic.
c) the representativeness heuristic.
d) anchoring and adjustment.
c) the representativeness heuristic.
Page Ref: 468
Suppose that you hear about a friend who graduated from college in dramatic arts. Suppose that you also judge her to be more likely to be both selling insurance and active in community theater than she is to be only selling insurance. You have:
a) fallen victim to the anchoring and adjustment heuristic.
b) fallen prey to a conjunction fallacy.
c) ignored regression to the mean.
d) committed a belief bias error.
b) fallen prey to a conjunction fallacy.
Page Ref: 469
Reasoning from a stereotype is most closely related to this heuristic:
a) the representativeness heuristic.
b) simulation.
c) the availability heuristic.
d) anchoring and adjustment.
a) the representativeness heuristic.
Page Ref: 471
Suppose you had somebody guess how a sequence of 10 coin flips would play itself out (e.g.THTHHHTHHT). If people did this task, they would tend to ____ the number of alternations, due to their reliance on the ______ heuristic.
a) overestimate; availability
b) overestimate; representativeness
c) underestimate; availability
d) underestimate; representativeness
b) overestimate; representativeness
Page Ref: 472
A pet phrase of sports announcers that refers to situations in which it seems a player can do no wrong (a quarterback completing all his pass attempts in a half, or a basketball player making all his three point attempts in a quarter) is called:
a) superstition effect.
b) gambler’s fallacy.
c) hot hand.
d) in with the Gods.
c) hot hand.
Page Ref: 472
The belief that after a run of bad luck a change is “due” to occur is called:
a) superstition effect.
b) gambler’s fallacy.
c) hot hand.
d) an “in” with the Gods.
b) gambler’s fallacy.
Page Ref: 474
Credit card companies’ practice of providing you with a “minimum payment” on your monthly bill likely influences payments to the companies’ advantage. This influence occurs (at least in part) due to:
a) the availability heuristic.
b) illusory correlation.
c) representativeness heuristic.
d) anchoring and adjustment.
d) anchoring and adjustment.
Page Ref: 475
The spotlight effect refers to the tendency to believe that _______, and is often cited as an example of _______.
a) you stand out to others more than you actually do; anchoring and the adjustment heuristic
b) no one notices you when you would like to be noticed; framing
c) you stand out to others more than you actually do; framing
d) no one notices you when you would like to be noticed; anchoring and the adjustment heuristic
a) you stand out to others more than you actually do; anchoring and the adjustment heuristic
Page Ref: 475
Which of these everyday sayings defines the hindsight effect?
a) Experience is the best teacher.
b) I could have told you that was going to happen.
c) Those who fail to learn from their mistakes are doomed to repeat them.
d) Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
b) I could have told you that was going to happen.
Page Ref: 476
When your best friend gets divorced, her mother tells her, “I’m sorry for you, but I knew this would eventually happen. You were never really right for each other.” This is an example of the:
a) framing effect.
b) availability heuristic.
c) hindsight bias.
d) illusory correlation.
c) hindsight bias.
Page Ref: 476
Hastie, Shkade & Payne (1999) looked at the hindsight bias in the context of (mock) civil litigation. In a foresight condition, participants were told that a dangerous situation was developing along a railroad line, and given an extensive set of facts, were then asked to estimate the forseeability of an accident. In the hindsight condition, participants were given the same set of facts, but were told that the accident had already occurred. They were also asked to predict the forseeability of the accident. Participants in the hindsight condition were more likely than those in the foresight condition to judge the defendant as:
a) liable.
b) reckless.
c) disregarding grave risk.
d) all of the above.
d) all of the above.
Page Ref: 476-477
Compare a $50 gain and a $50 loss. Which of these is more psychologically powerful, according to prospect theory?
a) They have equal value.
b) A $50 gain is more psychologically powerful.
c) It depends on the particular situation.
d) A $50 loss is more psychologically powerful.
d) A $50 loss is more psychologically powerful.
Page Ref: 483
If you want someone to be willing to take a risk, you can make it more likely by:
a) telling them what they stand to gain if they don’t take the risk.
b) telling them what they stand to lose if they don’t take the risk.
c) pitting the risk against a sure gain.
d) doing nothing special; risk-taking is people’s “default mode.”
b) telling them what they stand to lose if they don’t take the risk.
Page Ref: 484
In the book demonstration where you lose $10 or you lose a theater ticket, and are faced with the dilemma of whether to purchase a second ticket or not, people who lose the ticket will be _______ likely to purchase the ticket, because of _______.
a) more; psychological accounting
b) more; expected utility
c) less; psychological accounting
d) less; expected utility
c) less; psychological accounting
Page Ref: 486
Which of these is an example of the sunk cost effect?
a) Sally is too sick to go out, but decides to attend the play since she paid $40 for the ticket.
b) Jenny relents to the high-pressure sales person and spends $550 on accessories she doesn’t need.
c) Despite continued losses, Tony continues to play the ponies at the local track.
d) Aaron has a decent seat for the basketball game, but decides to upgrade them by buying much better seats from a scalper.
a) Sally is too sick to go out, but decides to attend the play since she paid $40 for the ticket.
Page Ref: 486
Porcelli and Delgado (2009) investigated the effects of acute stress on framing effects in decision making. They found that:
a) acute stress reversed the typical framing effect.
b) acute stress accentuated the typical framing effect.
c) acute stress had no influence on the typical framing effect.
d) the framing effect obtained depended on the particular nature of the stressor.
b) acute stress accentuated the typical framing effect.
Page Ref: 487
Which of the following is NOT generally considered to be a component of a problem?
a) a goal
b) a reward
c) a set of constraints
d) a set of obstacles to overcome
b) a reward
Page Ref: 493
Well-defined is to ill-defined as ______ is to _____.
a) anagram with a short word; anagram with a long word
b) long division; writing a paper
c) unclear; clear
d) essay; multiple choice
b) long division; writing a paper
Page Ref: 493
Verbal protocols are ______ and represent a return to the early methods espoused by ______.
a) step by step recordings of exactly what a person did in solving a problem; behaviorists
b) step by step recordings of exactly what a person did in solving a problem; structuralists
c) “thinking aloud” reports by the problem solver as they work on the problem; behaviorists
d) “thinking aloud” reports by the problem solver as they work on the problem; structuralists
d) “thinking aloud” reports by the problem solver as they work on the problem; structuralists
Page Ref: 495
Suppose I am planning a wedding with 200 guests, and everyone is going to have a designated place at 22 different dinner tables. Trying to figure out who is going to sit where, and with whom, would be considered:
a) an arrangement problem.
b) a divergent problem.
c) a transformation problem.
d) a deduction problem.
a) an arrangement problem.
Page Ref: 495-496
Trying to think of as many uses for a paper clip as you can would be considered:
a) an arrangement problem.
b) a divergent problem.
c) a transformation problem.
d) a deduction problem.
b) a divergent problem.
Page Ref: 495-496
The Tower of Hanoi problem, where you move a series of rings from one side of a playing board to the other
limited by certain constraints would be considered:
a) an arrangement problem.
b) a divergent problem.
c) a transformation problem.
d) a deduction problem.
c) a transformation problem.
Page Ref: 495-496
Looking at a sequence of numbers (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8) and trying to figure out the correct next number in the sequence would be considered:
a) an arrangement problem.
b) a divergent problem.
c) a transformation problem.
d) an induction problem.
d) an induction problem.
Page Ref: 495-496
According to the Gestalt psychologists, the sudden and successful restructuring of problem elements is termed:
a) the law of effect.
b) subgoal analysis.
c) insight.
d) problem space restructuring.
c) insight.
Page Ref: 499
What does GPS stand for?
a) goal, problem, solution
b) general problem solver
c) generic problem solution
d) genuine problem steps
b) general problem solver
Page Ref: 500
Which approach to problem solving attempts to minimize the “distance” between an initial state and a goal state by breaking the problem down into a series of subgoals?
a) Gestalt approach
b) Behaviorist approach
c) GPS approach
d) Structuralist approach
c) GPS approach
Page Ref: 500-501
The tendency to rely on habits and procedures that worked to solve a problem in the past is termed:
a) functional fixedness.
b) stereotype threat.
c) problem representation.
d) mental set.
d) mental set.
Page Ref: 503
Mental set operates at which stage of problem solving?
a) problem representation
b) generation of solutions
c) problem identification
d) applying solutions
a) problem representation
Page Ref: 503
Which of the following is an example of functional fixedness?
a) Dan always uses the same old banged-up set of tools to fix everything.
b) Steve always takes the same route to work everyday, in spite of constant traffic jams.
c) Kimber doesn’t think of using her CD case an as ice scraper to clear her windshield.
d) Alexander loves his new computer game so much that he can’t stop playing it.
c) Kimber doesn’t think of using her CD case an as ice scraper to clear her windshield.
Page Ref: 503
What did German and Defeyter (2000) find regarding development and functional fixedness?
a) Younger children are more likely than older children to demonstrate functional fixedness.
b) Older children are more likely than younger children to demonstrate functional fixedness.
c) There is no difference in functional fixedness demonstration between children and adults
d) Children do not demonstrate functional fixedness, only teenagers and adults.
b) Older children are more likely than younger children to demonstrate functional fixedness.
Page Ref: 506
In a study on stereotype threat, Quinn and Spencer (2001) had female and male participants engage in mathematical reasoning tasks. In one condition (group A), participants were told that the test was gender fair, yielding equivalent performance between men and women. The other group (group B) was given no such instruction. The results showed that:
a) Men outperformed women, but only in group B.
b) Men outperformed women, but only in group A.
c) Men outperformed women in both groups.
d) Women outperformed men in both groups.
a) Men outperformed women, but only in group B.
Page Ref: 507
The vastness of problem space associated with many problems:
a) is the result of the application of algorithms.
b) is “cut down” when a problem solver uses algorithms.
c) makes algorithms the best approach for solving most problems.
d) renders algorithms impractical for solving many problems.
d) renders algorithms impractical for solving many problems.
Page Ref: 510
Algorithm is to heuristic as _____ is to _____.
a) right; wrong
b) efficient; inefficient
c) computers; humans
d) science; math
c) computers; humans
Page Ref: 510-511
Means-end analysis is basically a fancy term for:
a) breaking a problem down into subgoals.
b) applying analogies to solve a problem.
c) applying algorithms to solve a problem.
d) working backwards to solve a problem.
a) breaking a problem down into subgoals.
Page Ref: 512
Using problems that have already been solved as aids for representing and solving the problem currently being
faced is termed:
a) an algorithm.
b) reasoning by analogy.
c) means-end analysis.
d) working backwards.
b) reasoning by analogy.
Page Ref: 512
Research on the ability to see and apply analogies between the “radiation problem” (tumor problem) and the attack problem indicates that:
a) people commonly miss the analogy with or without a hint.
b) people easily see the connection between the problems, and use it to solve the second one.
c) people rarely see the connection between the problems unless they’re given a hint; then, they usually do make the connection.
d) analogies only work with complex problems, not simple ones.
a) people commonly miss the analogy with or without a hint.
Page Ref: 512
Lane and Schooler (2004) investigated the effects of verbalizing on apprehension and retrieval of analogies. Participants read a series of scenarios either silently or aloud. Some of the scenarios were structurally analogous, and others were superficially analogous. What effect did the verbalizations have on ability to pick up on the analogies?
a) Verbalization did not help or hinder recognizing analogies.
b) Verbalization completely hindered the ability to pick up on analogies, regardless of type.
c) Verbalization helped to recognize superficial similarity at the expense of deeper analogies.
d) Verbalization hindered the recognition of superficial analogies, but helped with ability to recognize deeper analogies.
c) Verbalization helped to recognize superficial similarity at the expense of deeper analogies.
Page Ref: 516
According to skilled memory theory:
a) experts just naturally have better memories than novices.
b) experts must make more of an effort to encode information into LTM; this leads to better memory.
c) experts take more time when they’re retrieving information from memory.
d) experts have more richly elaborated semantic networks relevant to the domain than do novices.
d) experts have more richly elaborated semantic networks relevant to the domain than do novices.
Page Ref: 522
Chase and Simon (1973) performed a classic investigation of memory for pieces on a chessboard, comparing experts and novices on their ability to quickly apprehend and later remember chess piece configurations as set up on a chessboard. They compared situations in which the pieces were in a random configuration to situations in which the pieces were in a game configuration. What did they find?
a) Experts remembered the pieces and their arrangement better regardless of their configuration.
b) Experts remembered the pieces and arrangements better, but only in the game configuration condition.
c) Experts remembered the pieces and arrangements better, but only in the random configuration condition.
d) Novices actually remembered the pieces better in the game configuration condition.
b) Experts remembered the pieces and arrangements better, but only in the game configuration condition.
Page Ref: 522-523
Which of these is NOT a difference between the way experts and novices go about solving a problem?
a) Experts tend to work backwards; novices tend to work forwards.
b) Experts can practically bypass working memory in encoding problem information; novices can’t.
c) Novices tend to pick up on surface features, while experts are better at picking up structural features.
d) Experts are better at picking up on analogies and using them to solve problems.
a) Experts tend to work backwards; novices tend to work forwards.
Page Ref: 523
A finding regarding medical expertise indicates that those at an intermediate level of knowledge actually remember more information than do experts. This is termed the:
a) intern effect.
b) novice effect.
c) intermediate effect.
d) expert effect.
c) intermediate effect.
Page Ref: 525
Which of these would be considered a non-insight problem?
a) Duncker candle problem
b) two-string problem
c) nine-dot problem
d) Tower of Hanoi
d) Tower of Hanoi
Page Ref: 528
Insight problem is to non-insight problem as ________ is to _________.
a) concentration: AHA!
b) well-defined; ill-defined
c) sudden; step-by-step
d) Tower of Hanoi; nine-dot
c) sudden; step-by-step
Page Ref: 528
Metcalfe investigated the metacognition involved in solving insight and non-insight problems. She found:
a) no evidence of any kind of the “AHA!” experience.
b) that problem solvers are pretty sensitive to their own problem solving process, but only for insight problems.
c) that problem solvers are pretty sensitive to their own problem solving process, but only for non-insight problems.
d) that problem solvers are pretty sensitive to their own problem solving processes for all problem types
c) that problem solvers are pretty sensitive to their own problem solving process, but only for non-insight problems.
Page Ref: 530
Research on the brain correlates of problem solving indicate that:
a) creative problem solving seems to be associated more with the right hemisphere activation than with the left.
b) solving remote associates is a completely left brain activity.
c) creative problem solving is not lateralized – both hemispheres show equal activation.
d) the solving of non-insight problems seems to be the province of the right hemisphere.
a) creative problem solving seems to be associated more with the right hemisphere activation than with the left.
Page Ref: 532-533
The notion of incubation has a great deal of intuitive validity – the idea of taking a break aiding in the solution to a problem makes sense. What is the empirical evidence for this phenomenon?
a) Empirical work has failed to find it at all.
b) There is some limited evidence for this phenomenon.
c) The phenomenon is quite robust, having been obtained in a variety of settings and experimental procedures.
d) It’s impossible to test in the laboratory, so the notion remains entirely speculative.
b) There is some limited evidence for this phenomenon.
Page Ref: 535
The approach to teaching reading that emphasizes a top-down strategy is
a. whole language
b. phonics
c. data-driven processing
d. regressive saccadic
a. whole language
According to Rayner (1993), humans skip about __________% of words we take in during reading.
a. 0
b. 30
c. 60
d. 80
b. 30%
___________ refers to the “look of the word” (e.g., the printed form).
a. phonology
b. syntax
c. orthography
d. isolingualism
c. orthography
When reading English, perceptual span is about ______ characters to the left and _________ or so characters to the right of any given fixation.
a. 3, 3
b. 10, 20
c. 3, 15
d. 15, 3
c. 3, 15
________________ aphasia is a language disorder that tends to feature syntactic difficulties in language production.
a. Wernicke’s
b. Schacter’s
c. Brommel’s
d. Broca’s
a. Wernicke’s
Name researchers who support the view that language is largely innate and unique to humans.
a. Chomsky and Pinker
b. Chomsky and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
c. Sue and Duane Savage-Rumbaugh
d. Pinker and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
a. Chomsky and Pinker
____________________________ is the term for the design feature of language that allows us to use language for misrepresentation and deception.
a. arbitrariness
b. prevarication
c. semanticity
d. duality of patterning
d. duality of patterning
In the TED talk video shown in class starring Sue Savage-Rumbaugh (on the topic of Bonobo chimps, and especially “Kanzi”), Dr. Savage-Rumbaugh states “ We found that the most important thing for permitting Bonobos to acquire language is _______________________________”
a. not to teach them. It’s simply to use language around them, because the driving force in language acquisition is to understand what others, that are important to you, are saying to you.
b. to reward them with things that really are important in their world—even if they are not rewarding to humans. These things include bananas, gum, and other primary reinforcers for these magnificent beasts.
c. to use a reward and punishment system. What I mean is, it’s important to reward the correct behavior, but it’s just as important to punish them when they make mistakes. That leads to optimal learning.
d. to first create an ideal genetic specimen for the species, which is done through selective breeding in the lab and careful planning to prune the desired genetic signature that most resembles a human pattern.
???????????????????
If your perceived risk of heart disease is lower than your actual risk, you have a(n) __________________________________ bias.
a. pessimistic
b. optimistic
c. anchoring
b. optimistic
In the video “Judgment and Decision Making,” it was stated that psychologists (e.g., Kahneman and Tversky) have identified two approaches to judgment and decision making. Psychologists call the first approach “___________________________________.” This approach describes how we ought to act. Psychologists call the second approach, “_______________________________.” This latter approach describes how we actually act.
a. normative; descriptive
b. normative; actuarial
c. actuarial; conjunctive
d. bounded; rational
???????????????????????
In the dual-process view of judgment and decision making, System 1 processing includes
a. conscious processing
b. capacity-limited processing
c. evolutionarily old processing
d. controlled processing
c. evolutionarily old processing
(Unconscious, automatic, rapid, nonverbal, capacity-free, shared wih animals, evolutionarily old)
[system 2: conscious, controlled, slow, linked to language, capacity-limited, animals don’t have, evolutionarily new]
The “knew it all along effect” is also called_________________ bias.
a. anchoring
b. hindsight
c. regressive
d. autobiographical retention
b. hindsight
In lecture, a study of perceived risk for various events was presented. Results showed greater optimistic bias for evens that were perceived to be more ________________________.
a. random
b. gender-specific
c. controllable
d. positive
c. controllable
OR
d. positive
General strategies, or “rules of thumb,” that can be applied to solving various problems are called ____________________.
a. algorithms
b. heuristics
c. Simonisms
b. heuristics
Researchers on creativity generally agree that the definition of creativity includes two specific features. That is, a creative solution is both _____________________________ and _________________________________________.
a. novel; practical
b. through insight; through incubation
c. unconscious; conscious
d. verbal; spatial
???????????
Which school of psychology favored explanations of problem solving as involving simple associative learning. (Hint: Thorndike’s “Cats in a Puzzle Box” represents an example these types of psychologists put forth as an example).
a. Behaviorism
b. Cognitive psychology
c. Gestalt psychology
d. Freudian psychology
a. Behaviorism
Which example best demonstrates probable effects of stereotype threat?
a. A female performs better on a math test when she is first asked to report her gender.
b. An older adult performs worse on a memory test if it’s labeled a “memory” test rather than another type of test.
c. A male performs better on a math test when he is first asked to report his gender.
d. A military veteran recalls vivid events related to a past trauma when around other military personnel.
b. An older adult performs worse on a memory test if it’s labeled a “memory” test rather than another type of test.
