Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What is a questionnaire?
A
Set of questions used to learn info about an individual, not meant to be aggregated, just want to know about you
2
Q
What is a survey?
A
Meant to be aggregated, sampling and analytic process to combine (aggregate) data, don’t care about individual but the whole
3
Q
What are questionnaires used for?
A
Info about individual, used to get to know students better, determine eligibility for a study
4
Q
Why use surveys?
A
Subjective responses, not time sensitive, can get large samples, inexpensive
5
Q
What are the types of surveys?
A
Mail, email, phone
6
Q
What are the types of written surveys?
A
Mail, internet, group
7
Q
What are mail surveys?
A
Self-administered, instructions and questions must be clearly written, sent through postal service
8
Q
What are the pros of mail surveys?
A
Reduced interview bias, cost effective, reduces sampling bias, can complete at own leisure, anonymity
9
Q
What are the cons of mail surveys?
A
Participants may not follow or understand questions, literacy/language barriers, sampling bias still likely, not everyone will respond
10
Q
How to calculate a response rate?
A
(#of responses/# of initial sample-undelivered responses)X 100
11
Q
How can you increase response rates?
A
Multiple mailings, personalization, organized presentation, incentivization: money, gifts, sweepstakes entries
12
Q
What response rate percentage should you aim for?
A
50%
13
Q
What are internet surveys?
A
Delivered via email or website
14
Q
What are the advantages of internet surveys?
A
Tend to be cheaper (no postage), responses sent immediately (no waiting in mail or lost in mail), more convenient, more control over responses (can’t leave questions unanswered)
15
Q
What are the disadvantages of internet surveys?
A
Potential to get lost in spam folders, hard to calculate true response rate (unknown how many people see survey), sampling bias (older populations may not be tech savvy)
16
Q
What are group administered surveys?
A
Group of people complete survey in the same setting, self-administered, questions should be self-explanatory, can lead to higher response rates, not ideal for every topic
17
Q
What are interviews?
A
Questions answered in presence of researcher, participants can ask clarifying questions, allows for more complex and nuanced answers, follow-ups
18
Q
What are the major types of interviews?
A
Phone and in-person
19
Q
What are the advantages of phone interviews?
A
Not location dependent, relatively anonymous, convenient, controls for some bias
20
Q
What are the disadvantages of phone interviews?
A
Not everyone answers their phone, sampling bias, hard to confirm participant is who they say they are
21
Q
What are the advantages of in-person interviews?
A
Higher response rate (doesn’t count for avoidance), can confirm participant identity, more control for sampling bias
22
Q
What are the disadvantages of in-person interviews?
A
Easy to avoid/ignore researchers, not cost-prohibitive, location restrictions, respondents more likely to give socially desirable answers
23
Q
What is interview bias?
A
Interviewers facial expressions, tone, mannerisms, and attire, wording is VERY important
24
Q
What is wording?
A
Lot of time and energy put into questions, consider ambiguity and bias
25
What are open-ended questions?
Allow for more nuance, clarification, explanation and greater diversity of responses, error probability increases, hard to score/analyze, multiple judges can be used to score, want high agreeability between judges
26
How to calculate agreeability?
(Agreements/ Opportunities for agreement)X 100
27
What are close-ended questions?
More control over possible answers, no room for clarification/explanation, should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, multiple ways to administer
28
What are close-ended questions rating scales?
More sensitive than yes/no, bigger does not equal better, not everyone has same threshold
29
What are anchor points used for?
Guidance on rating scales |—X———-|
30
What are closed-ended questions multiple choice?
Available options must be mutually exhaustive and exclusive
31
What are loaded questions?
Emotionally loaded and non-neutral
Example:
Do you believe that people who desecrate pizzas, our nations most beloved dish with disgusting pineapple on it deserve to rot in jail forever?
32
What is question structure?
People often form answers before they reach end of questions, conditional information should be placed at the beginning of the sentence
33
Not a question: Example of good and bad question structure
◊ Bad:
Do you believe possession of stolen property should be punished, even if the person is not aware the property is stole?
◊ Good:
If a person is not aware that the property they have is stole, should possession of stolen property still be punished?
34
What are leading questions?
Present information in a way to lead the respondent in a specific manner
Example:
Most people believe the most important step to protect the environment is to recycle. Do you agree?
35
What are double-barreled questions?
Ask more than one question at a time
Example:
Do you find this class to be challenging and rewarding?
36
What are fallacies? (Example not definition)
Example:
Have you decided to stop abusing your dog by giving him flea and tick prevention?
No: “No, I have not stopped abusing my dog.”
Yes: “I admit, I used to abuse my dog by giving them flea/tick medication but I don’t anymore.”
37
What is order of questions?
Although an individual question may not be leading, a series of questions in a specific order can be leading
Example:
-Do you believe all people have the right to be present in any public space?
-Do you believe all people have the right to smoke cigarettes if they choose?
-Do you think people should be allowed to smoke in any public place?
38
What is branching?
Answers to certain questions determine which questions they will see next, done using filter ?’s
39
What are filter questions?
Used to allow participants to complete surveys faster, avoid unnecessary N/A responses
Example:
Do you consider yourself a smoker?
If answer is yes, go to question 2.
If answer is no, go to question 5.
40
What should survey appearance be?
Easy to read, inviting, reasonable length, strategically organized
41
What is a funnel structure?
Start with general, easy, and interesting questions then slowly introduce more challenging complex ones towards the middle
42
What are demographics in a survey?
Can be used first (act as icebreakers for interviews) or last (viewed as boring, starting with them could deter participant from completing survey)
43
What are surveys used for in survey appearance?
Personal information might be saved for the end
44
What are psychological inventories?
Set of questions created to learn about the individuals responses, used for clinical experimental purposes
45
What is test-retest reliability?
Getting comparable answers from the same individual upon retesting
46
What are alternative forms of reliability?
How well two versions of a test yield comparable results
47
What are construct reliability?
The degree to which respondent’s replies are consistent WITHIN an instrument meant to measure a specific characteristic
48
What is split half reliability?
The degree to which the respondent’s replies to half the items on a measurement tool is related to their responses to the other half of the items
49
What is face validity?
Does the tool APPEAR to be measuring what it says
50
What is construct validity?
The extent to which the concepts thought to be measured within the tool are actually being measured, compare to similar measures
51
What are criterion validity?
How well the measurements of the instrument correlate with other outcomes or behaviors
52
What is random selection?
Everyone in the population has an equal opportunity of being selected
53
What is systematic sampling?
Conducted non-randomly but with a purpose and a set of procedures
Example:
Every 10th person on list
54
What is stratified sampling?
Technique to ensure a sample will be representative of specific subgroups of the population (aka strata)
55
What is cluster sampling?
Clusters that represent the population are identified and then everyone in those clusters are included
56
What is quota sampling?
Differing numbers of participants are chosen for each sample from various subgroups of a population identifying convenient sources of subgroup members and soliciting participants from these sources
57
What is snowball sampling?
Participants are asked to identify other participants
58
What is non-probability sampling?
Each member of the population is not equally likely to be selected and the outcome could be a bias sample
59
What was the radioactive materials in pregnant women study?
Vanderbilt 1940’s, radioactive iron supplements were given to pregnant women and the goal was to determine how iron crossed into the placenta
60
What were the concerns of the radioactive pregnant women study?
Informed consent, benefits, deception
61
What was the declaration of Helsinki 1964?
Protections of patience health, drive for knowledge cannot negate patient rights, researchers need to be trained and qualified, respect for local laws and ethics
62
Why did the declaration of Helsinki 1964 matter?
Informed consent, compare to standard treatment, risk/benefits, vulnerable populations, sound scientific inquiry/protocols/disclosures, research ethics committee, patient privacy, public access to databases
63
What was the first principle of the Belmont report 1979?
Respect for persons:
-Individuals must be treated as people who can make their own decisions and decide what will and what will not happen to them
-Those that are not able to make these decisions themselves must be protected
64
What was the result of the Nuremberg trial?
Good of society and not able to be done another way, existing animal data, etc. must justify, avoid unnecessary injury/harm (mental & physical), cannot do if death is expected outcome, risk should not outweigh humanitarian benefit, voluntary termination
65
Has the Nuremberg code been adopted officially as law?
No
66
What was the second principle of the Belmont report (1979)?
Beneficence:
-Humans should NOT be harmed during course of participation
-Risks vs. Harm
67
What was the third principle of the Belmont report?
Justice:
-Selection of participants in a study should be done fairly
68
What is researcher responsibility?
Responsibility of ethical treatment of participants on researcher
69
What is an institutional review board?
Committee of individuals with diverse backgrounds review proposals for research with human participants
70
Who makes up an institutional review board?
Professors, healthcare workers, clergy, etc.
71
What are IRB exemptions?
Research conducted in educational settings, surveys, interviews, and observations of public behavior
72
What is anonymity?
Nothing is known about the participant
73
What is informed consent?
Purpose of the study, procedures, risks/benefits, protection of data, free to STOP
74
What is a risk?
Potential for physical or psychological harm to research participant
75
What is minimal risk?
Probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort no greater than risks encountered in daily life
76
What is a full review?
More than minimal risk to subjects, not covered under other review categories
Ex: interventions involving physical or emotional discomfort/sensitive data
77
What is expedited review?
No greater than minimal risks, fits one of 9 expedited review categories,
Ex: collection of biospecimens by noninvasive means, research with existing docs/record collected for non-research purposes
78
What is exempt review?
Less than minimal risk, fits on of 6 exempt categories
Ex: research with de-identified records, anonymous surveys
79
What is deception?
Lying or misleading participants, no other way to get information, can’t deceive about things that would impact willingness to participate
80
What is debriefing?
Informing participants about TRUE purpose of study, confederates, misconceptions, and questions
81
What is free consent?
Participant agrees to participate without any coercion or pressure
82
What was the Milgram Experiment?
Authority figure ordered participants to deliver what they believed were dangerous electric shocks to another person and weren’t allowed to leave
83
What are the benefits of using animals?
Anatomical and physical similarities, vaccine and medication development
84
What are considerations for using animals?
Translatability, rodent vs. human DNA, gene families, redundancies, gene expression, social context
85
What is the IACUC?
Institutional Animal care and use committee (reduce, replace, refinement)
86
What are ethics in animal research?
Comfortable living conditions, anesthesia and euthanasia, veterinary care, animal exploitations, alternatives
87
What do you have to have when working with animals?
Justification, trained personnel, housing/inspections, IACUC review, veterinary care, lawful acquirement, minimize distress and discomfort, minimize number, can’t release into wild
88
What is a case study?
Only one subject DOES NOT involve manipulation of IV (utilizes naturalistic observations, interviews, surveys, etc.)
89
What is a single-subject design?
Only one subject DOES involved manipulation of IV
90
Who is Phineas Gage?
Bar went through head when working on railroad completely changed his whole personality
91
What kind of design was Patient SM?
Case study and Single subject design
92
What was Patient SM?
Bilateral amygdala damage due to Urbach-Wiethe disease, resulted in inability to experience fear
93
Exposure to snakes and spiders to determine reaction is…
Case study: no IV manipulation
94
Taken to a haunted house to see reaction is…
Case study: No IV manipulation
95
Shown movie clips to evoke different emotions is….
Single-Subject: IV manipulation
96
What is just noticeable difference?
At what distance two distinct points become noticeable to participant 50% of the time
97
What are baseline measurements?
Often used in single subjects, can act as “control” condition, important that baselines are stable
98
Why can single subjects be useful?
Ethics: is it okay to withhold treatment from those in placebo?
Practicality: Difficult to recruit people with specific conditions/disorders
99
What are problems averaging across groups?
Comparing group means can be difficult if one group has high variability and other doesn’t
Ex: experimental subjects can either get worse or better while control subjects show no change
100
What do you do if your baseline measurements aren’t stable?
Extend length of time for baseline data collection until it becomes stable, control for variables which may cause instability, use design that doesn’t require baseline measurement (alternating treatment designs)
101
What is a time series design?
Most single subjects are variants, multiple measurements of DV take place prior to and after IV is introduced
102
What is a withdrawal design (ABAB)?
Baseline taken prior to introduction of IV, IV is then introduced and more measurements taken, IV is taken away and more measurements taken, can repeat multiple times
103
What does A and B stand for in withdrawal designs?
A= Baseline/Withdrawal phase
B= Manipulation/Intervention Phase (IV present)
104
What do the letters in the ABAC design?
A = Baseline/Withdrawal (No IV)
B = 1st manipulation/Intervention (1st IV Present)
C = 2nd Manipulation/Intervention (2nd IV present)
105
What do the letters in a ABCB design stand for?
A = Baseline/Withdrawal (No IV)
B = Manipulation/Intervention (IV Present)
C = Placebo/Control Intervention
106
What is reversal design?
When intervention is withdrawn, replaced with interaction which produces opposite effect
Ex: Two siblings play aggressively with one another and there is concern it is due to receiving attention (negative) from parents when play is aggressive
107
What is alternating treatments (between-series designs)?
Variation of ABAB, 2 diff. Interventions/treatments alternated with one another, order can be random or systematic, baseline measurements not required
108
What is a multiple baselines design?
All previous examples assume that there are no lasting effects of the treatments/interventions, no withdrawal phase in this study design, effect of treatment on two or more behaviors is assessed OR effect of a treatment on single behavior assessed across multiple situations
109
What is an example of multiple baselines: multiple situations?
Smoking at work and home (morning and evening)
110
What is multiple baselines: multiple measures?
Child who whines, bickers, and talks back to parent
111
What is internal validity in single subject designs?
Threats to internal validity: subject bias, demand characteristics, researcher bias
112
What is changing criterion design?
Baseline phase followed by changing criteria, no withdrawal phase
Ex: Exercise
113
What are the two main areas of ethical consideration?
Treatment of participants while conducting research and use of research results
114
What does the Nuremberg Code (1947) state?
Participants must give voluntary consent, research yield results for good of society that can’t be obtained by other means, experiments conducted in way that avoids all unnecessary physical and mental suffering/injury
115
What were the three principles of the Belmont Report?
Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice
116
What was respect for persons?
Individuals need to be treated as people who can make their own decisions about what will/will not happen to them/those who cannot make those decisions for themselves must be protected
117
What was beneficence?
Humans should not be harmed in the course of participating in research, research should maximize benefits and minimize potential harm
118
What is justice?
Selection of participants needs to be done fairly
119
What do IRBs help researchers with?
Seeing their projects from others’ POV, attempt to ensure safety and well-being of human participants in research
120
What is confidentiality?
Not divulging information to others
121
What is anonymity?
Identity of a person is not known, including what they look like
122
What is an informed consent form?
Given to each participant prior to start of project, describes purpose of study, what participant will have to do, any risks/benefits, whether data will be confidential, and person is still free to leave at any time
123
When should studies involving deception be conducted?
Only when no known alternative is available, and researcher does not deceive participant about anything that might make them not want to be in the study
124
What is free consent?
Consent given without pressure or coercion to comply
125
What are some issues involving internet research?
Hard to tell true age, if consent is still valid by end of study, privacy of information is harder to guarantee
126
What is privacy?
Invisible physical or psychological buffer zones around a person
127
What is nomothetic research?
Conducted on groups in attempt to identify general laws/principles of behavior
128
What is idiographic research?
Behavior of an individual
129
What can case studies include?
Naturalistic observation, surveys, interviews, etc. not not typically involve the use of experimental designs
130
What is scientific misconduct?
Plagiarism, fabrication of data, or falsification of proposing, conducting, reviewing, or reporting of research
131
What are the problems with group comparison studies?
Prompts ethical concerns among those who wish to assess the effectiveness of a treatment, pose practical problems to identifying and soliciting cooperation of large enough sample, and criticism of averaging across participants in group comparison studies
132
What is an advantage of a single subject design over a group design?
Can determine effectiveness of treatment for a specific individual, replication of study can see how well treatment can be generalized
133
What is the primary logic behind a single subject design?
Compare behavior after intervention with baseline of that behavior
134
What does a research have to establish to detect a difference between baseline and intervention measurements?
Stable baseline (baseline with little variability)
135
What does a stable baseline have?
Little variability (can control by controlling source of variance), and it does not increase or decrease
136
When are increasing or decreasing baselines problematic?
When the baseline is going in the direction that the research predicted after he manipulation of the IV occurs
137
When is the increasing or decreasing of a baseline less of a concern?
When the trend is going in the opposite direction of the expected effect of the IV
138
What design are many single subject designs variations of?
Time-series design (several measurements before and after intro. Of IV)
139
What exactly is ABAB design?
Baseline (A), followed by intervention (B), followed by withdrawal (A), and then again intervention (B)
140
What exactly is an ABAC design?
B introduced after baseline, B is withdrawn to return to baseline (A), second intervention C is introduced
141
What is a placebo effect?
Behavior changes after introduction of intervention, when intervention is known to be ineffectual
142
What exactly is a ABCB design?
After baseline, B intervention is introduced and then replaced by placebo (C), B intervention is then reintroduced
143
What is a reversal design?
New and opposite intervention is introduced
144
What is the difference between the alternating-treatments design and ABAB design?
Alternating-treatments design does not require a baseline, and two (or more) treatments are presented instead of only one
145
What can a multiple-baselines design be used for?
Measure effect of intervention on different behaviors, effect of treatment on two or more behaviors, or treatment on single behavior across two or more sitations
146
What two designs avoid withdrawing treatment?
Changing-criterion design and multiple-baselines design
147
Why is mail and internet surveys being self-administered a benefit?
Can be administered widely, less susceptible to sampling bias, little opportunity for interviewer bias, good for collecting information that person might not want to talk about in person or over the phone
148
True or false: Surveys are a set of questions used to learn about individuals and are not meant to be aggregated
False
149
A research team sends out 1,000 surveys via the postal service. All surveys were sent to eligible participants and none were undelivered. The researchers received 400 completed surveys in return. What was the response rate for their survey?
40%
150
Which of the following can help increase response rates?
○ Paying participants for completing survey
○ Sending Survey multiple times
○ Making Survey Look professional
○ All of the Above
All of the above
151
Sonya conducts a study where she compares the risky decision making of 10-14 year olds and 15-19 year olds on a gambling task. Is the subject variable Age between or within subjects?
Between
152
True or False: Written surveys are always a better option than interviews
False
153
Which of the following is true of closed-ended questions?
○ They're always better than open-ended questions
○ They should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive
○ All of the above?
B
154
The following is an example of what type of question:
Do you often feel angry and tired throughout the day?
Double-barreled
155
Are the following answers mutually exclusive and exhaustive to the question, “How many drinks do you consume in a typical week?"
○ A. 0 drinks
○ B. < 5 drinks
○ C. ≥ 5 and < 10 drinks
○ D. ≥ 10 and < 20 drinks
No
156
Which of the following is NOT an example of non-probability sampling?
○ Snowball
○ Quota
○ Systematic
○ Convenience
Systematic
157
___ validity refers to how well an instrument correlates with other outcomes or behaviors
Criterion
158
Getting similar results from a participant after retaking the same instrument is an example of what type of reliability?
○ Alternative forms
○ Construct
○ Split half
○ Test-Restest
D
159
Which of the following was NOT part of the Nuremberg Code?
○ Researchers must be trained and qualified to carry out procedures
○ Harm and risk to human subjects must be minimized
○ Participants are allowed to leave experiment at any time
○ Participant's information must be kept private
D
160
True or False: Individuals may have to participate in research even if they don’t want to if the benefit to humanity is great enough.
False
161
The Belmont Report was created in response to which unethical experiment?
○ Nazi Experiments during WW2
○ Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
○ Standord Prison Study
○ Radioactive pregnancy studies
B
162
Which of the following is NOT considered a vulnerable population?
○ Prisoners
○ Homeless
○ College Students
○ Children
C
163
Liana want to collect blood samples from middle school students (age 9-13) to study the levels of cortisol is an example of ____
Full review
164
Jerry wants to observe the college student's (18-25) behavior at school library is an example of ____
Exempt review
165
Tiffany wants to collect saliva samples from young adults to study digestion is an example of ____
Expedited review
166
Which of the following is something you cannot lie to the participants in a study about?
○ Anything that would alter their willingness to participate in the study
○ Voluntary termination
○ Harming them
○ The purpose of the study
1-3
167
What was the main ethical problem with the Milgram study?
did not let people leave, etc.
168
How do scientists decide which non-human animal species to use?
intelligence of the animal, physiology, etc.
169
Give an an example of the following IACUC 3Rs: Reduce, replace, refinement
○ Reduce
§ Justify what animals to use, minimize how many in study
○ Replace
§ Take cells from animal let cells continue to split and divide, replace whole animal with cells
○ Refinement
§ Making sure animals have less stress in their lives
170
A patient born without a cerebellum (cerebellar agenesis) agrees to be studied by researchers. The researchers have the patient complete several motor tasks, all of which they score poorly on. Is this case or single-subjects design?
Single-subject
171
True or False: Difficulty in finding/recruiting individuals with a rare condition is one reason why researchers may use a single-subject design.
True
172
A researcher wants to see if a new sleeping aid truly results in an improvement in sleep or if it’s the result of a placebo effect. They conduct a single-subject design with the following phases: 1-week of baseline sleep, 1 week using the sleep aid, 1-week using a placebo pill, and 1-week using the sleep aid again. What type of single subjects is this?
ABCB
173
True or false: If baseline measures are unstable, one method to stabilize them is to extend the length of time the baseline data is collected.
True
174
A dog trainer wants to see if their new training method of obedience works or not. They take 5 baseline measures of obedience, 5 measures after the introduction of their new training method, 5 measures after withdrawing their new training method, and 5 measures after re-introducing their new training method. What type of single subject is this?
ABAB
175
True or false: In an alternating treatments design, one intervention is replaced with another intervention that produces the opposite effect from the first.
False: reversal design instead
176
Which of the following are ways to minimize threats to internal validity in a single-subject design?
○ Ensure baseline measurements don't change with treatment
○ Keep participant blinded to study purpose as ethically as possible
○ Use objective measures
○ All of the above
D
177
What is a risk of multiple mailings?
Recipients may think research is tracking them and wonder about anonymity, might answer same survey more than once
178
What is question wording?
Conditional information placed at beginning the question
