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DCC: BIO 232 Lecture > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What compose the walls of the large intestine?

A

The walls are thinner that the small intestine and have no villi
Goblet cells: secrete mucus for lubrication
Distinctive intestinal crypts: dips of simple columnar cells - contain goblet cells: lubricate undigested material, contain large lymphoid nodules (part of GALT)

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2
Q

What part of digestion does the large intestine play?

A

Some nutrient absorption, mostly absorbs water from chyme.
Mostly bacteria digestion

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3
Q

What is the “bacteria digestion” in the large intestine?

A

The microbiome (all non-human cells in/on body) majorly E. Coli breaks down the undigested (body just didn’t absorb) carbs, proteins, and lipids & converts vitamins into absorbable versions (ie vitamin K)

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4
Q

What is the membrane of the digestive system and what are its parts?

A

Peritoneum: serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
-Visceral: covering most digestive organs
-Parietal: line abdominal cavity wall
-Peritoneal cavity: fluid-filled space to lubricate the organs

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5
Q

What is mesentery and what is its function?

A

A special peritoneum: a double layer of visceral peritoneum stuck together with areolar connective tissue in between.
Function: stabilize organ, blood vessel, and nerve positions

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6
Q

What are the three types of mesentery?

A

1) Mesentery proper: supporting the small intestine (attached to jejunum)
2) Greater omentum: peritoneum plus adipose that hangs off the greater curvature of the stomach to the inferior organs (intestines)
3) Lesser omentum: peritoneum plus adipose tissue hangs off lesser curvature of stomach to superior organs (liver)

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7
Q

What are the layers of the digestive tube deep to superficial?

A

Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa (visceral peritoneum)
then the mesentery

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8
Q

What comprises the mucosa?

A

Epithelial tissue: contact with lumen
-non-keratinized stratified squamous in oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, anus (close to external environment)
-simple columnar: rest of digestive system
Connective tissue:
-lamina propria: supporting ET in mucus membranes (supports villi),
-areolar CT, capillaries, nervous tissue, and lymphatic vessels
Muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle supporting mucosa

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9
Q

What comprises the submucosa?

A

(Not a mucus membrane, but goes into plica)
Dense irregular connective tissue
Large blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and glands

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10
Q

What comprises the muscularis externa and what is its function?

A

(it is a big layer of muscle)
Circular- like a ring, and longitudinal (running length of tube) smooth muscle layers
Function: peristalsis- longitudinal, but also circular and segmentation- mostly circular

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11
Q

What comprises the serosa and where is it found?

A

Visceral layer of serous membrane
Located: everywhere but pharynx, esophagus, and rectum which has adventitia

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12
Q

What is the cephalic phase of digestion and what occurs in it?

A

The first phase: digesting lipids and carbs with chemical and mechanical digestion. Also provides for defense

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13
Q

What is the chemical digestion of the cephalic phase?

A

Saliva:
-softens & lubricates food (b/c mostly water)
-salivary amylase (enzyme),
-dissolves food (allows for tastents to be detected by taste buds)
Lingual Lipase:
-breaks down fats mainly triglycerides

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14
Q

What is the mechanical digestion and defense of the cephalic phase?

A

Mechanical digestion:
- mastication, “chewing” of pre-molars and molars
Defense:
-lysozyme and immunoglobins destroy/disable certain bacteria and viruses on/in the food we eat

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15
Q

What is the gastric phase of digestion and what occurs in it?

A

The second phase of digestion, digesting lipids and proteins
The stomach contains cells that are involved in chemical digestion and cells that are involved in protection (keeping the other secretions at a pH of 2 from digesting the stomach wall)
Mucus, G, Parietal, Chief, ECL, and D cells

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16
Q

What do the mucus cells of the stomach do?

A

Produce mucus and bicarbonate for protection
-mucus: physical barrier between lumen and epithelium -bicarbonate: buffers gastric acid to pH ~7 directly over cells to prevent damage to epithelium

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17
Q

What do the G cells of the stomach do?

A

Secrete gastrin that tells another group of cells (parietal cells) in the stomach to secrete gastric acid

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18
Q

What do the Parietal cells of the stomach do?

A

Secretes
-Gastric acid (HCl) that kills microbes in the digestive track, activate pepsin (from pepsinogen for chemical digestion- break peptide chains into smaller fragments), denatures proteins (for easier digestion), stimulate somatostatin release (from D cells), stop activity of salivary amylase (no carb digestion)
-Intrinsic Factor: bind to B12 allow for absorption

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19
Q

What do the chief cells of the stomach do?

A

Secrete:
-Pepsinogen: inactive form of pepsin that will
-Gastric lipase: digest lipids

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20
Q

What do the ECL cells of the stomach do?

A

Secrete histamine to act on parietal cells for the simulation of gastric acid secretion

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21
Q

What do the D cells of the stomach do?

A

Release somatostatin that will inhibit G, Chief, and ECL cells (inhibit gastric acid and histamine secretion)

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22
Q

What is the intestinal phase of digestion and what occurs in it?

A

Third phase of digestion,
Digestion of proteins, lipids, carbs, & nucleic acid. Chemical digestion
Secretions from small intestine, pancreas, and liver

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23
Q

What are the secretions of the small intestine?

A

Goblet cells, Crypt Cells, and Brush-boarder enzymes.

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24
Q

What are the secretions of the pancreas?

A

Bicarbonate: buffer pH from 2 to 7
Pancreatic amylase: digest starch
Pancreatic lipase: digest lipids
Pancreatic proteases: digest protein (hard to digest)
Pancreatic nuclease: digest nucleic acids

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25
Q

What are the pancreatic proteases?

A

Inactive: Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase
Trypsinogen activated to trypsin by specific brush boarder: protease enteropeptidase
Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin and procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase
Once activated they can digest proteins

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26
Q

What are the secretions of the liver and what do they do?

A

Bile salts to duodenum to emulsify fats turning fat globule to fat droplets and recycled by liver
They do not break down triglycerides

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27
Q

What do the Goblet cells of the small intestine do?

A

Goblet cells: mucus for lubrication for easy movement

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28
Q

What do the crypt cells of the small intestine do?

A

Crypt Cells: isotone saline solution: NaCl offering a slippery environment for softening and dissolving

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29
Q

What are the brush boarder enzymes of the small intestine and what do they do?

A

They are embedded in plasma membrane of villi
They provide last point of contact for nutrient digestion (carbs, proteins, nucleic acid)
They transport from lumen to cell to blood vessel after nutrients are broken to small segments:
(Carbs to monosaccharides, proteins to amino acids or peptides, nucleic acids to nitrogenous bases and monosaccharides)

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30
Q

How is the pancreas involved in lipid digestion?

A

Pancreatic lipase binds with colipase (also from pancreas) that displaces bile salts (detaches them from the fat droplet) so that the lipase can stick to the triglycerides and break off two fatty acids.

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31
Q

What happens to the remnants of the triglycerides?

A

Some of the fatty acids and the monoglyceride are absorbed into the epithelium while other form micelles–rings of fatty acids and monoglycerides that move down the digestive tract and are absorbed along the way

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32
Q

How do the epithelial cells absorb lipids and what happens next?

A

Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter cells via simple diffusion. Endoplasmic reticulum reassembles triglycerides (too big fit through). Golgi apparatus assembles triglycerides into chylomicrons.

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33
Q

What are chylomicrons and what happens to them?

A

Chylomicrons are triglycerides plus a protein to make them water-soluble (transportable by lymph & plasma). Chylomicrons excreted via exocytosis into interstitial fluid (opposite of lumen) and enter lymphatic system via lacteals in plica and eventually to the blood stream (ducts –> subclavian veins)

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34
Q

What are testes and where are they located?

A

The male structures that produce sex cells (spermatozoa/sperm). Located external to body in pouches called scrotum because they must be below the core temperature.

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35
Q

What else are in the scrotum and what is their function?

A

Dartos & cremaster muscles: move position of scrotum closer/farther from pelvis to regulate the temperature of the testes.

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36
Q

What is the function of the inguinal canal?

A

It is the canal through which the testes descend during development. After this it contains the spermatic cord connecting the testes to the pelvic cavity containing the ductus deferens, the testicular artery and veins, and nerves

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37
Q

What are the two main structures in the testes and what are their general jobs?

A

The seminiferous tubules: very tiny tubes for sperm production
Interstitial cells: between the tubules to make testosterone

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38
Q

What are the layers of the seminiferous tubules? Superficial to deep

A

Spermatogonia (germ–stem–cells that produce sperm)
Primary spermatocyte
Secondary spermatocyte
Spermatids
Lumen (spermatozoa)

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39
Q

What n are humans and what is our karyotype?

A

Humans are diploid meaning that we have two sets of our 23 chromosomes. 2n = 46.
Our karyotype is 46 chromosomes.
(46 chromosomes in all cells including spermatogonia, not sex cells = 1n, haploid)

40
Q

What are the steps of spermatogenesis?

A

Mitosis: spermatogonia duplicates all chromosomes & splits = 2 2n cells, = 1 primary spermatocyte, 1 spermatogonia
Meiosis I: primary spermatocyte cuts it chromosomes in half and splits = 2 1n cells,
Meiosis II: (2) Secondary spermatocytes = (4) spermatids
Spermatogenesis: (4) spermatids assemble structures needed to form 4 spermatozoa (flagellum, midpiece (to connect head & flagellum), and head (w/ enzymes) in the lumen

41
Q

What are the seminiferous tubules connected to and what does it do?

A

Epididymis (2) (posterior to each testes).
Function: store spermatozoa which become mobile in the epididymis, until released with semen in ejaculation.
Provides 5% of semen volume

42
Q

What is connected to the epididymis and what does it do?

A

Ductus (vas) deferens (2), carry sperm away from epididymis to pelvic cavity via spermatic cord. Two tubes meet at ejaculatory duct in prostate gland.
involved in vasectomy

43
Q

What are the accessory glands of the reproductive tubes and how many are there of each?

A

Seminal vesicles (glands) (2), prostate gland (1), and bulbourethral glands (2)

44
Q

What is the location and function of the seminal vesicles?

A

Location: posterior to urinary bladder deposit into ductus deferens at the ejaculatory duct.
Function: Secretions adding 60% to semen volume

45
Q

What are the secretions of the seminal vesicles and what are their functions?

A

Fructose: for sperm sustenance make ATP to move flagella
Prostaglandins: keep semen together in gelatinous state to not loose cohesiveness
Bicarbonate: Maintain pH around sperm because pass through urethra (acidic urine) and vagina (w/ microbes maintaining a low pH).
Substances that clot and liquefy semen for sperm movement

46
Q

What is the function of the prostate gland?

A

Secretions adding 30% to semen volume into prostatic urethra
Antimicrobial chemicals: because of urine contamination
Substances that clot and liquefy semen
Substances that increase sperm motility

47
Q

What is the function of the bulbourethral glands?

A

5% of semen volume into spongy urethra
Alkaline (basic) mucus important because it flushes out urine in urethra and acts as a lubricant

48
Q

What is the purpose of the penis and what are the three main structures?

A

Internal fertilization.
Internal root: with spongy urethra then continue to external
Shaft: -corpora cavernosa (superior) and corpus spongiosum (contain urethra) full of blood vessels
Glans: covered by prepuce (forskin)

49
Q

What are the two functions of the penis and how do they work generally?

A

Erection: parasympathetic sends signals to increase blood flow
Ejaculation: get sperm out, sympathetic, signals for muscle contraction in sperm storing and conducting tubes

50
Q

What is a big difference between female and male reproductive organs?

A

The female egg-producing organs, the ovaries, are inside the body-in the pelvic cavity

51
Q

What are follicles? How do they vary?

A

Follicles are a container holding the reproductive cell–the oocyte.
There is more than one kind of follicle and the number of each type depends on the part of the ovarian cycle the female is in.

52
Q

What are primordial follicles? What is special about their number in the ovaries? What is their supporting structure?

A

They are the smallest follicles that contain a primary oocyte that fills most of the space in the follicle.
Their number is fixed and no more will be produced. (Their number decreases with each ovarian cycle.)
Supporting structure: Squamous granulosa cells

53
Q

What do some primordial follicles progress to? What are these made of?

A

Bigger follicles called primary follicles.
Made of simple cuboidal granulosa cells w/ a clear area between the cuboidal and the oocyte called the zona pellucida.
Primary oocyte does not change, Its container gets bigger

54
Q

What do primary follicles progress to? What are these composed of?

A

Secondary follicles: granulosa cells (simple cuboidal), thecal cells- outside granulosa cells, zona pellucida, corona radiata- radiating crown of cells surrounding primary oocyte.

55
Q

What do secondary follicles progress to? How many? What composes these cells?

A

Tertiary/dominant/mature follicles- usually only one. Still has other structures (simple cuboidal granulosa cells, thecal cells, zona pellucida, corona radiata) New: Antrum- fluid-filled space around corona radiata.

56
Q

What becomes of mature follicles?

A

Corpus luteum- empty mature, hormone secreting structure incase of fertilization

57
Q

What happens with the oocyte while the follicles change?

A

Primary oocyte stays the same until released when mature ruptures with ovulation at this point it completed Meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte.

58
Q

What oogenesis occurs before birth?

A

oogonia (like spermatogonia) diploid germ cells, only active in fetus
-mitosis: makes 1 primary oocyte (2n) and 1 oogonia (2n) until they stop
^the primary oocyte will begin Meiosis I then stop “meiotic arrest” until puberty

59
Q

What oogenesis occurs at puberty?

A

After puberty small numbers of primary oocytes continue meiosis I each menstrual cycle.

60
Q

What changes with the primary oocyte in the primary and secondary follicles?

A

Primary and secondary follicles: primary oocyte continues Meiosis I and follicle secretes estrogen

61
Q

What changes with the primary oocyte in the mature follicle and after?

A

Mature ovulates secondary oocyte (Meiosis I finishes in primary oocyte) & polar body (has genetic material, but not viable)
Secondary oocyte: begins Meiosis II then stops
^no fertilization: enter oviduct
^fertilization continues Meiosis II but only finishes (splits in two) directly before fertilization occurs. Ending with Ovum (“egg cell”) and 3 polar bodies (one polar body from Meiosis II, 2 from previous one pb)
Four things that contain genetic material are made just as in spermatogenesis

62
Q

What are the function of the uterine tubes? What are their other names and what are its stuctures?

A

Take secondary oocyte to a place of potential fertilization
Fallopian tubes/oviducts
Infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus

63
Q

What is the structure and function of the infundibulum?

A

Has finger-like projections called fimbria over ovary that has fimbria cilia making current to move (suck) cells into infundibulum that receives the oocyte from the ovary

64
Q

What is the structure and function of the ampulla and isthmus?

A

Ampulla: Curved part, area of fertilization.
If sperm are around they must meet the egg in this location for fertilization to occur.
Isthmus: links to uterus, bring secondary oocyte or zygote to uterus

65
Q

What is the shape and layers of the uterus?

A

(Humans have only 1 uterus)
Upside down pear shape.
Three layers:
Endometrium: epithelium called endothelium lines uterine cavity. Blood vessels and uterine glands underly endothelium
Myometrium: smooth muscles generating labor contractions/cramps
Perimetrium: visceral serous membrane attaches two ligaments for anchoring

66
Q

What are bad things that can happen to the uterus?

A

Prolapse: weak pelvic flood muscle
Inverted uterus: uterus pulled out & not know why

67
Q

What is the composition, structure and function of the cervix?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium inferior area of uterus projecting into vagina containing mucus secretions and stretch receptors.

68
Q

What is particular about the mucus secretions of the cervix?

A

Different quality at different times of ovulation.
Thick: things cannot get in
Thin: things can get in
Change so sperm cannot get in after the time of fertilization.

69
Q

What is the function of the stretch receptors of the cervix? What is particular about the stratified squamous epithelium of the cervix?

A

Receptors: Stretched by baby, stimulus for labor contractions
Epithelium: First potentially infected with HPV, sampled during pap smear to detect abnormal cells form HPV infection

70
Q

What is HPV?

A

Human papilloma virus:
Group of viruses that have many different strains. Some cause genital warts others mutating in epithelial cells leaning to cervical, penile, throat, and anal cancers.
Vaccines (Gardasil) protect against nine strains known to cause cancer/warts

71
Q

What is the cells and structures in and around the vagina?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium lining to protect from intercourse
Rugae. lactobacillus bacteria, vestibule

72
Q

What is the function of the rugae of the vagina?

A

Visible folds when smooth muscle is contracted (resting state), no folds - vagina stretches and smooth muscle relaxes during arousal

73
Q

What is the function of lactobacillus bacteria?

A

Part of microbiome, generate acidic secretions to protect against yeast and infectuous bacteria

74
Q

What is the function of the vestibule?

A

Open space, area around opening to vagina and urethra
-vestibular glands secrete mucus into this are for lubrication on either side of vestibule

75
Q

What external female organ is homologous to an external male organ and where is it found? What does this mean?

A

Clitoris. Found below the pubic bone.
Meaning: It comes from the same embryonic origin as male external organs

76
Q

What are the structures and function of the clitoris?

A

Erectile tissue (containing lots blood vessels when flow increased becomes stiff), and nerves
Glans (external) covered by prepuce
Corpus Cavernosa (internal) wrapping around urethra & vagina (large organ)
Function: producing pleasure

77
Q

What female reproductive organs are external besides the clitoris?

A

labia minora: small fold of skin surrounding the vestibule
labia majora: fold of skin surrounding the minora

78
Q

What is the physiology of the reproductive system reliant on?

A

Sex hormones: androgens, estrogens,

79
Q

What are the sex hormones in males?

A

Androgens are predominate in males.
-most common testosterone coming from testes
Aromatase in testes converts some androgens to estrogens

80
Q

What are the sex hormones in females?

A

Estrogens are predominate in females
-ovaries produce estrogens (estradiol), progestins (progesterone), & androgens

81
Q

What does the adrenal gland do?

A

Produces some estrogen for males and some testosterone for females + estrogen after menopause

82
Q

What happens to sex hormones with age?

A

Male: testosterone levels decline a little with age
Female: estrogens levels decline significantly after menopause

83
Q

What is the function of the anterior pituitary gland and the hypothalamus for the reproductive system? And what is the result?

A

A.P: Major control of sex hormones in body by releasing gonadotropins: FSH and LH
H: secrete GnRH to A.P
FSH –> reproductive organs for gamete production
LH–> act on endocrine cells of reproductive organs

84
Q

How are sex hormones regulated?

A

Low Estrogen (E) or Androgens (A) = no neg. feedback =Gonadotropin lev incr.
Moderate E/A = neg feedback = dec. G lev.
High A = neg feedback = dec. LH lev
High E=positive feedback=G lev incr

85
Q

What are the function of FSH in males?

A

FSH acts on sertoli (nurse) cells in seminiferous tubules to secrete
-proteins: support & nourish spermatogonia
-Inhibin: feedback ctrl FSH (inhibit lev)
-Androgen-binding protein: bind testosterone & keep “stuck” in seminiferous tubules to promote sperm production

86
Q

What is the function of LH in males?

A

Stimulate interstitial cells “make testosterone!”
-testosterone neg feedback ctrl LH lev. involved in spermatogenesis
-Secondary sex characteristics: incr. muscle mass & hair, deepen voice

87
Q

What is the function of FSH and LH in females?

A

FSH: stimulate granulosa cells make aromatase
LH: stimulate theca cells to make androgens
(aromatase + androgens = estrogens)

88
Q

What is the menstrual cycle?

A

Both the ovarian (follicular and luteal phases) and uterine (menses, proliferative, secretory working on mostly endometrium) cycles working together

89
Q

What occurs in the early follicular phase?

A

1-6 days: estrogen levels slowly increase and negative feedback to gonadotropins
-secretion of anti-mullerian hormone (AMH) that prevents other follicles from developing and promote development of dominant follicle

90
Q

What occurs in the late follicular phase?

A

7-14 days:
-Estrogen levels very high
-Progesterone levels increase
both positive feedback: on GnRH, LH surge by day 14 trigger ovulation because FSH increases minimally because inhibited by inhibin

91
Q

What occurs in the early-mid luteal phase?

A

15-26 days
Corpus luteum secretes medium estrogen lev, high inhibin lev, very high progesterone lev
All ovarian hormones act neg feedback on & inhibit secretion of GnRH, FSH, LH

important that E not high so no positive feed back

92
Q

What occurs in the late luteal phase?

A

26-28 days:
Corpus luteum secreted for 12 days then:
-No pregnancy: c. luteum breaks own to c. albicans, stop secrete inhibin, estrogen, progesterone so GnRH not inhibited leading to an increase in FSH and LH lev
-Pregnancy: developing placenta secretes hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin- pregnancy test) - corpus luteum persists

93
Q

What occurs int the mensus phase?

A

Begin: “period” days 1-6
-low progesterone and estrogen: endometrium breaks down & sheds

94
Q

What occurs in the proliferative phase?

A

7-14 days “grow back phase”
-estrogen lev. increases, endometrium regrows
-cervix: thin mucus facilitate sperm transport through cervix into uterus

95
Q

What occurs in the secretory phase?

A

15-28 days
Estrogen and progesterone levels increase due to corpus luteum
-blood vessels proliferate through endometrium making ideal environment for zygote implantation in fertilized
-glycogen secreted as an energy source for embryo in early implantation
-thick mucus prevent entry incase pregnancy occurs

DCC: BIO 232 Lecture (5 decks)

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