Exam 3 Vocabulary Flashcards
Vocabulary from Chapters 9, 10, and 12.
1
Q
cognition
A
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
2
Q
metacognition
A
cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.
3
Q
concept
A
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
4
Q
prototype
A
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow).
5
Q
algorithm
A
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.
6
Q
heuristic
A
a simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut—that o en allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.
7
Q
insight
A
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
8
Q
confirmation bias
A
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
9
Q
fixation
A
in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving.
10
Q
intuition
A
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
11
Q
representativeness heuristic
A
judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
12
Q
availability heuristic
A
judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
13
Q
overconfidence
A
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
14
Q
belief perseverance
A
the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even a er the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
15
Q
framing
A
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
16
Q
nudge
A
framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.
17
Q
creativity
A
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.
18
Q
convergent thinking
A
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
19
Q
divergent thinking
A
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.
20
Q
language
A
our spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
21
Q
phoneme
A
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
22
Q
morpheme
A
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).
23
Q
grammar
A
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
24
Q
babbling stage
A
the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.
25
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
26
two-word stage
the stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences.
27
telegraphic speech
the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs.
28
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by le hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
29
Broca's area
a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the le hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.
30
Wernicke's area
a brain area, usually in the le temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression.
31
linguistic determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
32
linguistic relativism
the idea that language influences the way we think.
33
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
34
general intelligence (g)
according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
35
fluid intelligence (Gf)
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.
36
crystallized intelligence (Gc)
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
37
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory
the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc.
38
savant syndrom
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.
39
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
40
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.
41
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
42
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
43
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.
44
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.
45
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma / ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
46
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.
47
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
48
normal curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Also called a normal distribution.)
49
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.
50
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also predictive validity.)
51
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)
52
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
53
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time.
54
cohort
a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as being from a given time period.
55
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
56
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.
57
physiological need
a basic bodily requirement.
58
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
59
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
60
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
61
Yerkes-Dodson law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
62
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before people can fulfill their higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs.
63
affiliation need
the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group.
64
self-determination theory
the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
65
ostracism
deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.
66
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption.
67
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.
68
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
69
intrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
70
extrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
71
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
72
set point
the point at which the “weight thermostat” may be set. When the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.
73
basal metabolic rate
the body’s resting rate of energy output.
74
obesity
defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher, which is calculated from our weight-to-height ratio. (Individuals who are overweight have a BMI of 25 or higher.)
75
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and, most importantly, (3) conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations.
76
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion occurs when we become aware of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus.
77
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.
78
two-factor theory
the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
79
polygraph
a machine used in attempts to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing.
80
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.
81
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.
82
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
83
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
84
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
85
attitude
feelings, o en influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
86
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
87
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
88
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
89
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.
90
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.
91
norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.
92
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
93
tight culture
places with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.
94
loose culture
places with flexible and informal norms.
95
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
96
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
97
informational social influence
influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.
98
social facilitation
in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.
99
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
100
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
101
group polarization
the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
102
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
103
prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
104
stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but o en overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
105
discrimination
in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.
106
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
107
ingroup
“us”—people with whom we share a common identity.
108
outgroup
“them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
109
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group.
110
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
111
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.
112
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
113
frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.
114
social script
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
115
mere exposure effect
the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.
116
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship.
117
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
118
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
119
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others.
120
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
121
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
122
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
123
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
124
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help.
125
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
126
social trap
a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
127
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views o en held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
128
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
129
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
