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Anatomy & Physiology II > Exam 3: Respiratory System, Digestive System, Metabolism > Flashcards

Exam 3: Respiratory System, Digestive System, Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

What is the primary function of the respiratory system

A

Respiration

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2
Q

what are the 4 components of respiration

A

-ventilation
-external respiration
-gas transport
-internal respiration

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3
Q

define ventilation

A

Breathing

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4
Q

Describe external respiration

A

Gas Exchange
-O2 enters & CO2 leaves through lungs

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5
Q

Describe internal respiration

A

Gas exchange in tissues

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6
Q

what are additional functions of the respiratory system

A

-regulation of blood pH
(by changing CO2 levels)

-Production of chemical mediators
(angiotensin-converting enzyme ACE: BP regulation)

-Voice production

-olfaction

-barrier to pathogens

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7
Q

What are the structural divisions of the respiratory system

A

-upper-respiratory tract
-lower-respiratory tract

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8
Q

What are the components of the upper-respiratory tract

A

Neck up to face
-external nose
-nasal cavity
-pharynx
-larynx
(sound production “voice box”)

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9
Q

what are the components of the lower-respiratory tract

A

Neck down into chest
-Trachea (splits into 2 tubes that then split again)
-Bronchi & Bronchioles
-Lungs
-Alveoli

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10
Q

Describe the symptoms of upper-respiratory tract infections

A

Usually symptoms occur above the neck
(not as serious as lower-resp. tract infections)
-cough
-sneezing
-sore throat

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11
Q

Describe the symptoms of lower-respiratory tract infections

A

usually last longer than upper infections and are more serious
-Bronchitis
-pneumonia
-etc.

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12
Q

what are the functional divisions of the respiratory system

A

-Conducting zone
-Respiratory zone

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13
Q

what is the conducting zone of respiratory system

A

functional division where air movement occurs
-includes everything from nose to bronchioles

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14
Q

what is the respiratory zone of respiratory system

A

functional division where gas exchange occurs
-includes alveoli

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15
Q

What are the components of the nasal cavity

A

-nasal turbinates
-pseudostratified ciliated epithelium

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16
Q

Describe the nasal turbinates of nasal cavity and what they do

A

3 pairs of thin bones covered by expandable tissue
-swell during allergies or other infections
(makes it hard to breathe)

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17
Q

Describe the pseudostratified ciliated epithelium of nasal cavity

A

-Lines nasal cavity
-Contains interspersed goblet cells
(Mucus production)

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18
Q

What are the functions of the nasal cavity

A

-air movement
-cleans air
-humidifies and warms air
-olfactory epithelium
-resonating chamber for speech

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19
Q

how does air movement occur in nasal cavity

A

nasal turbinates force air into slow steady pattern to contact surface area with epithelium

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20
Q

how does the nasal cavity clean air

A

turbulence facilitates contact with epithelium and mucus

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21
Q

when is it important for air to be humidified and warmed in nasal cavity

A

The winter
-but this occurs all the time

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22
Q

what do the olfactory epithelium do within the nasal cavity

A

scent detection

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23
Q

what does the resonating chamber for speech in nasal cavity do

A

amplifies sound we produce

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24
Q

what is the pharynx

A

Common opening for digestive & respiratory systems

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25
Q

what are the 3 regions of the pharynx (superior to inferior)

A

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

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26
Q

what is the function of the nasopharynx

A

connects to nasal cavity

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27
Q

what is the function of the oropharynx

A

connects to oral cavity

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28
Q

what is the function of the laryngopharynx

A

route food/drink to esophagus and air to lungs

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29
Q

Describe the larynx

A

Rigid and strong structure composed of 9 cartilages connected by muscles and ligaments

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30
Q

what are the parts of the larynx

A

-vestibular folds
-vocal folds
-epiglottis
-glottis
-cartilages

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31
Q

what are the vestibular folds of larynx

A

2 pairs of ligaments running anterior to posterior

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32
Q

what are the vocal folds of the larynx

A

“vocal cords”
-2 pairs of ligaments inferior to vestibular folds
-ligaments covered by mucus membrane

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33
Q

what is the epiglottis of the larynx

A

flap of elastic cartilage
-keeps food from entering lungs

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34
Q

what is the primary function of the vocal folds

A

sound production
-air vibrates ligaments
-sound is modified by lips, tongue, location of vibration on vocal folds

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35
Q

what is the largest cartilage of larynx

A

thyroid cartilage

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36
Q

REVIEW GRAPHIC OF VOCAL FOLDS

A
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37
Q

what happens when arytenoid cartilage attached to vocal folds in larynx is medially rotated

A

vocal folds are closed for sound production

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38
Q

what happens when arytenoid cartilage attached to vocal folds in larynx is laterally rotated

A

vocal folds are opened for breathing

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39
Q

what is the glottis

A

vocal folds and opening between them

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40
Q

what is the trachea

A

tube that moves air to the lungs

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41
Q

describe the structure of the trachea

A

C-shaped hyaline cartilage
-supports anterior and later sides of trachea

Trachealis (smooth muscle on posterior wall)
-contraction narrows diameter (coughing)

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42
Q

REVIEW TRACHEA FIGURE

A
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43
Q

what are the parts of the trachea

A

Hyaline cartilage
Right bronchus
Left bronchus (sits a bit higher than right)
Carina

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44
Q

what is the carina

A

A ridge of cartilage in the trachea at level of T4 vertebrae

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45
Q

what happens if foreign objects reach this area

A

Triggers very strong cough reflex

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46
Q

Describe the Tracheobronchial tree

A

Trachea branches into:
-primary bronchi
-secondary bronchi
-tertiary bronchi
-bronchioles
-terminal bronchioles

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47
Q

how big are the bronchioles

A

1mm in diameter

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48
Q

What are the terminal bronchioles made of

A

only smooth muscle

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49
Q

what is bronchodilation

A

smooth muscle relaxes
-increases airflow during exercise or stress

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50
Q

what is bronchoconstriction

A

smooth muscle contracts
-this happens during an asthma attack
(albuterol-inhaler promotes smooth muscle relaxation)

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51
Q

Which lung is larger

A

Right lung

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52
Q

what are the lobes of the right lung

A

superior, middle, inferior

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53
Q

what are the lobes of the left lung

A

superior, inferior

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54
Q

what notch is unique to the left lung

A

cardiac notch

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55
Q

what is each lobe of each lung supplied by

A

a secondary bronchus

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56
Q

what are lobes of lungs subdivided into

A

bronchopulmonary segments

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57
Q

what are bronchopulmonary segments supplied by

A

tertiary bronchi

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58
Q

how many bronchopulmonary segments are in right lung

A

10

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59
Q

how many bronchopulmonary segments are in left lung

A

9

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60
Q

what are alveoli

A

found within lungs at ends of terminal bronchioles
-alveolar ducts ending in alveolar sacs

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61
Q

what is the primary function of alveoli

A

site of gas exchange

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62
Q

what are the cell types of the alveolar wall

A

Type I pneumocytes
-simple squamous epithelium for gas exchange

Type II pneumocytes
-simple cuboidal epithelium that produce surfactant for alveolar expansion

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63
Q

what is required for airflow into lungs

A

-pressure gradient

-air moves from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure
(atmospheric pressure vs. pressure in alveoli)

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64
Q

What happens during inspiration (inhalation)

A

air pressure outside body is greater than air pressure in alveoli

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65
Q

what happens during expiration (exhalation)

A

opposite of inhalation
-air pressure in alveoli is greater than air pressure outside of body

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66
Q

Describe how air flows into body

A

Through trachea, bronchi, to alveoli

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67
Q

What is Boyle’s Law

A

increase in volume=decrease in pressure (& vice versa)
-P=K/V

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68
Q

Describe how muscles and thoracic volume change during inspiration of quiet breathing

A

-contraction of external intercostals and diaphragm

-Expansion of ribcage/lungs

-Increase thoracic cavity volume

-decrease pressure

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69
Q

Describe how muscles and thoracic volume change during expiration of quiet breathing

A

-relaxation of external intercostals and diaphragm

-Recoil of ribcage/lungs

-Decrease thoracic cavity volume

-increase pressure

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70
Q

what is the pleural cavity

A

serous membrane around lungs
-allows lungs to “stick” to thoracic cavity

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71
Q

what is PB

A

Barometric pressure
-the approximate air pressure in the atmosphere

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72
Q

what is Palv

A

pressure within the alveoli

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73
Q

what is the relationship between PB and Palv at end of expiration

A

PB=Palv
-no air moves in or out of the lungs

74
Q

what is the relationship between PB and Palv at end of inspiration

A

PB=Palv
-thorax and alveoli stop expanding
-no air moves in or out of lungs

75
Q

how does pressure change during inspiration

A

-muscle contraction
-thoracic volume increases
-lungs expand
-air flows into lungs

PB>Palv

76
Q

how does pressure change during expiration

A

-muscles relax
-thoracic volume decreases
-lungs recoil
-air flows out of lungs

PB<Palv

77
Q

what is lung recoil

A

decrease after stretch, compression of alveoli

78
Q

what is surfactant

A

lipoprotein produced by type II pneumocytes
-reduces tendency of lungs to collapse

79
Q

where does gas exchange occur

A

alveoli

80
Q

how does gas exchange occur

A

gasses cross alveolar respiratory membrane

81
Q

what is partial pressure

A

% of total air made up of an individual gas
-can also think of this as being the “concentration” of a certain gas within the atmosphere

82
Q

how do gasses move in relation to partial pressure

A

gasses move from higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure

83
Q

what is gas exchange affected by

A

-diffusability of gasses
-thickness of alveolar respiratory membrane
-surface area of membrane

84
Q

Describe the fate of gasses

A

O2 bound to hemoglobin
-Reversible binding
-delivered to tissues and used in ATP production

CO2 produced from ATP production
-transport: bicarbonate that is dissolved in plasma or on hemoglobin

85
Q

REVIEW GAS EXCHANGE GRAPHIC

A
86
Q

What are the major components of the digestive system

A

-alimentary canal (GI Tract)
-Accessory Organs

87
Q

what is the alimentary canal

A

AKA Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
-the entire “tube” through which food passes (mouth to anus)

88
Q

what do the accessory organs of the digestive system do

A

aid in food breakdown outside of the GI tract

89
Q

what are the four major layers of the tissues of GI tract
(superficial-deep)

A

Serosa
Muscularis
Submucosa
Mucosa

90
Q

what is the serosa composed of and what is its function

A

-areolar connective tissue & epithelium

-holds GI tract in place ventral (in front) to spinal column

91
Q

what is the muscularis composed of and what is its function

A

-smooth muscle for mechanical digestion

-inner circular layer, outer longitudinal layer

-stomach: additional oblique layer

92
Q

what is the submucosa composed of and what is its function

A

-dense irregular connective tissue that supports mucosa

-connects mucosa to underlying smooth muscle

-has blood vessels and nerves

93
Q

what is the mucosa composed of and what is its function

A

-epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle

-has direct contact with digested food

94
Q

Describe the process of digestion

A

Ingestion:
-taking in food

Propulsion:
-swallowing, peristalsis (moving food)

Digestion:
-mechanical-physically breaking down food (chewing, stomach churning)
-chemical-breaking down food using chemicals (saliva, stomach, intestines)

Absorption:
-nutrients and water absorbed via intestines

Elimination/defecation:
-removal of wastes

95
Q

what hormones control digestion

A

gastrin
secretin
cholecystokinin
gastric inhibitory peptide

96
Q

what does the hormone gastrin do

A

stimulates gastric acid secretion in stomach mucosa

97
Q

what does the hormone secretin do

A

from duodenum of small intestine, stimulates bicarbonate secretion by pancreas
-reduces acidity

98
Q

what does the hormone cholecystokinin do

A

from duodenum, stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes

99
Q

what does the hormone gastric inhibitory peptide do

A

inhibits gastric secretions & motility

100
Q

how do neural mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and osmoreceptors in walls of GI tract control digestion

A

stimulate gastric acid secretion in stomach mucosa

101
Q

How does the enteric nervous system affect digestion

A

branch of autonomic nervous system that regulates motility and secretion via plexuses

102
Q

what type of digestion do the teeth perform

A

mechanical digestion

103
Q

what are the different salivary glands

A

parotid gland
-(slightly inferior to ears)

submandibular gland
-inferior to lower jaw

sublingual gland
-inferior to tongue

104
Q

What is the function of saliva

A

-moistens food
-medium for tasted detection
-amylase aids in chemical digestion
(enzyme that breaks down starch)

105
Q

How does parasympathetic NS stimulation affect salivary glands

A

-keeps saliva flowing enough to maintain “comfort”
-smell of food can increase stimulation

106
Q

how does sympathetic NS stimulation affect salivary glands

A

-stressful situations reduce salivation = dry mouth

107
Q

what is a bolus

A

“ball” of food that gets created as we chew and then swallow

108
Q

where does a bolus of food go

A

through esophagus

109
Q

where is the esophagus located

A

posterior to trachea

110
Q

define peristalsis

A

wave-like contractions that move bolus of food through esophagus

111
Q

what is the lower esophageal sphincter

A

allows food into stomach
-heartburn if sphincter allows digested food back into esophagus

111
Q

what is the lower esophageal sphincter

A

allows food into stomach
-heartburn if sphincter allows digested food back into esophagus

112
Q

Describe how peristalsis occurs

A

-muscularis activity produces “waves” of contraction

-circular and longitudinal layers contract simultaneously

-constriction of wall to push bolus

-expansion of wall to receive bolus

113
Q

Describe the process of mechanical digestion in the stomach

A

Perstaltic churning from fundus (round superior area) to pylorus (narrow inferior area)
-helps move food around stomach, break into smaller pieces

114
Q

what does the stomach secrete for chemical digestion

A

-gastric acid
-pepsinogen
-intrinsic factor

115
Q

Describe the function of Gastric Acid

A

-pH is 1
-protein breakdown
-kills bacteria
-stomach protected by alkaline (basic pH) mucus

116
Q

describe the function of pepsinogen

A

converted to pepsin
-breaks down proteins

117
Q

Describe the function of intrinsic factor

A

-allows vitamin absorption

118
Q

what is food mixed with stomach secretions called

A

chyme

119
Q

what are the regions of the small intestine

A

-duodenum
-jejunum
-ileum

120
Q

what is the primary function of the small intestine

A

nutrient absorption

121
Q

what is the intestinal lining composed of

A

Circular folds
-spiralling movement of chyme

Villi

Microvillii
-brush border

122
Q

what is the function of the intestinal lining

A

increases surface area
-when you increase surface area, increases absorption

123
Q

what are the divisions of the large intestine

A

cecum
-joins with small intestine

colon
-reabsorbs water and salts

rectum
-stores solid waste until elimination

anal canal
-leads to anus for elimination

124
Q

what are the four parts of the colon

A

Ascending colon
-superior from cecum, ends at R. colic flexure

Transverse colon
-extends from right to left colic flexure

Descending colon
-inferior from left colic flexure

Sigmoid colon
-s-shaped tube that ends at rectum

125
Q

where is the site of many healthy/”friendly” bacteria

A

colon

126
Q

what is fecal microbiota transplantation

A

Transplant of healthy feces :
-typically used to treat colostridium difficile (C. diff)
-C. diff is usually controlled by normal microbiota in colon
-antibiotics can kill normal flora & C. diff infects/reinfects
*can be life threatening

127
Q

what is the endocrine role of the pancreas

A

insulin & glucagon secretion

128
Q

what is the digestive role of the pancreas

A

Secretion of enzymes into duodenum
-enzymes breakdown carbohydrates, proteins, lipids

129
Q

what are the lobes of the liver

A

-left
-right
-caudate (posterior)
-quadrate (posterior)

130
Q

what does the liver house

A

glycogen (glucose storage)

131
Q

what is the function of the liver

A

-detoxification of harmful substances
-production of bile

132
Q

what is the function of the gallbladder

A

-storage of bile
-secretes bile into duodenum via common bile duct

133
Q

what is the primary function of bile

A

lipid absorption

134
Q

are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic

A

hydrophobic (fear water)

135
Q

why are lipids difficult to absorb by intestinal lining

A

they are hydrophobic

136
Q

what does bile contain

A

bile salts

137
Q

how do bile salts work

A

-salts surround lipids, creating micelles
*micelles=hydrophilic (like water)
-Micelles allow absorption of fats

138
Q

what is metabolism

A

the sum of all catabolic & anabolic reactions in the body

139
Q

what does metabolic rate measure

A

amount of energy used to maintain life

140
Q

how do we maintain our metabolic rate

A

ingesting sufficient food

141
Q

what are catabolic reactions

A

breakdown larger molecules obtained from food via glycolysis, lipolysis, hydrolysis, etc.

142
Q

what is hydrolysis

A

breakdown of ATP releasing energy stored in bonds

143
Q

REVIEW HYDROLYSIS GRAPHIC

A
144
Q

what are anabolic reactions

A

-synthesize (build) larger molecules from smaller parts via things like phosphorylation

145
Q

what is phosphorylation

A

synthesis of ATP (reverse of hydrolysis)

146
Q

what do errors in catabolic and anabolic reactions cause

A

disease

147
Q

what is oxidation

A

losing an electron

148
Q

what is reduction

A

gaining an electron
*energy release for synthesis

149
Q

what are the four major groups of macromolecules

A

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)

150
Q

how are carbohydrates metabolized

A

glycolysis
cellular (aerobic) respiration
anaerobic respiration

151
Q

what is glycolysis

A

glyco=glucose lysis=breakdown
-breakdown of glucose
-some ATP produced

152
Q

what are the steps of cellular respiration

A
  1. glycolysis
    2.citric acid cycle
    3.oxidative phosphorylation
153
Q

about how much ATP is produced per glucose molecule in cellular respiration

A

36-38

154
Q

what are the steps of anaerobic respiration

A
  1. glycolysis
  2. lactic acid fermentation
155
Q

about how much ATP is produced per glucose molecule in anaerobic respiration

A

not as much ATP bc not as efficient as cellular respiration
-only 2-3 molecules

156
Q

How are lipids metabolized

A

-lipids mostly absorbed from diet by small intestine
-fatty acids are oxidized (lose electron)
-then enter citric acid cycle where ATP is produced
-fats are fuel source when glucose is not available

157
Q

how are proteins metabolized

A

-proteins broken down by gastric acid and pepsin
-secretin & cholecystokinin aid in digesting proteins
-liberation of individual amino acids
*used to create new proteins
*in excess, amino acids processed and stored as glucose or ketone
*can be used to ATP production if starvation occuring

158
Q

what are the different metabolic states

A

fed state (absorptive)
fasted state (post-absorptive)
starvation

159
Q

Describe the fed-state

A

-glucose and other molecules absorbed
-blood glucose increases—>insulin secretion

160
Q

describe the fasted state

A

-glucose levels drop
-glucagon secretion (due to reduced blood glucose)

161
Q

describe the starvation state

A

-initially glucose produced via gluconeogenesis
-after a few days, fats broke down–>ketone bodies
*used as fuel source by most organs
*this allows brain to still use glucose
-after glucose depletion, proteins broken down from organs first, then muscles later

—–THIS CAN BE FATAL

162
Q

what is a common metabolic disorder

A

diabetes mellitus

163
Q

what is diabetes mellitus characterized by

A

hyperglycemia (chronic high blood glucose)

164
Q

what is one of the oldest diseases discovered
*earliest record from 1500 BCE Egypt “too great emptying of urine”

A

diabetes mellitus

165
Q

in India diabetes originally called

A

madhumeha
-means honey urine - it attracted ants

166
Q

when was diabetes mellitus dubbed this

A

230 BCE

167
Q

when were 2 separate types of diabetes distinguished

A

400-500CE

168
Q

how is diabetes tested for

A

fasting blood glucose: blood glucose usually first thing in the morning

A1C test: % of glycated hemoglobin
*glycated hemoglobin=monosaccharide bound to hemoglobin

Oral glucose tolerance test: how well body is able to lower blood glucose

169
Q

what is prediabetes

A

high risk for developing diabetes

170
Q

what is diabetes

A

chronic high blood glucose

171
Q

what are the early physiological signs of diabetes

A

hyperglycemia (consistent high blood glucose)
glycosuria-glucose in urine
polyuria-excess urination
polydipsia-excess thirst

172
Q

what are symptoms of diabetes

A

-fatigue from inability to take in/use glucose

-weight gain-due to carb/sugar craving from inability to take in glucose

173
Q

why do we care about glucose

A

-glucose is important major source of energy
-brain requires regular supply of glucose
-we have several hormones that increase blood glucose (only one that lowers it!)

174
Q

how does chronic high blood glucose affect cellular mechanisms

A

-high levels of glycated hemoglobin increases free radicals and alters blood cell membranes—>leads to cell aggregation and reduced blood flow

-inflammation and artherosclerotic plaque formation

-reduced blood flow to neurons—>neuropathy (nerve damage)

175
Q

what are the effects of untreated diabetes

A

-neuropathy
*weakness, slow reflexes, tingling, loss of sensation
*amputation if severe

-Capillary damage
*kidney damage
*diabetic retinopathy-lack of blood supply to retina, causes spotty vision

176
Q

How does insulin lower blood glucose

A

-only hormone that does this!
-striated muscle, adipose—>insertion of GLUT4s
*allows for facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells

-liver, pancreas, intestines, kidneys—>alteration of intracellular glucose levels creates concentration gradient
*allows for facilitated diffusion of glucose into cell

177
Q

What is type 1 diabetes

A

no insulin produced —-> high blood glucose
*autoimmune destruction of pancreas
*get insulin injections

178
Q

what is type 2 diabetes

A

insulin unable to bind to receptors —> high blood glucose

179
Q

Prevalence of diabetes

A

fastest increase in asia and africa
-in U.S. 10% of population diagnosed with diabetes

180
Q

how to prevent diabetes

A

healthy lifestyle habits including exercise, healthy diet, minimize stress, minimize stigma, minimize misinformation

Anatomy & Physiology II (3 decks)

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