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Bio 3100 > Exam 3 Phase 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Phase 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A

Alcohols that have aldehyde or ketone function

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2
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

Simple sugars and derivatives with 3 to 9 carbons

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3
Q

What are oligosaccharides?

A

Compound formed by linking several monosaccharides together

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4
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Polymer formed from multiple saccharide units; may be homopolysaccharide or heteropolysaccharide

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5
Q

What is a homopolysaccharide?

A

Composed of a single type of monosaccharide

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6
Q

What is a hetersaccharide?

A

Composed of multiple types of monosaccharides

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7
Q

What is the general formula of a carbohydrate?

A

(CH2O)n

n=1 is formaldehyde

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8
Q

What are the diverse functions of carbohydrates?

A 
Metabolism, storage, and generation of energy
Molecular Recognition
Cellular Protection
Cell Adhesion
Biological Lubrication
Maintenance of Biological Structure
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9
Q

What are examples of how carbohydrates are used for metabolism, storage, and generation of energy?

A

Glucose, glycogen, and starch

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10
Q

What is cellulose?

A

A polymer of glucose; 2 beta linked 1->4 D-glucose units

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11
Q

Where is molecular recognition used?

A

In the immune system

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12
Q

Where is cellular protection used?

A

Bacterial and plant cell walls

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13
Q

Where is cell adhesion used?

A

Glycoproteins

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14
Q

Where is biological lubrication used?

A

Glycosaminoglycans

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15
Q

Where is maintenance of biological structure used?

A

Cellulose, chitin

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16
Q

Monosaccharides can be ______ or _______

A

Ketoses or aldoses

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17
Q

What sugar is used in DNA?

A

2-Deoxy-D-Ribose

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18
Q

What does reduction of dihodroxyacetone by NADH produce?

A

A sugar alcohol

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19
Q

What are the simplest monosaccharides?

A

They are derivatives of glycerol

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20
Q

What is an epimer?

A

Any sugar in which one location of -OH has been altered, both will be L-L or D-D

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21
Q

What is the orientation of most amino acids?

A

L

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22
Q

What is the orientation of most sugars and what is the exception?

A

Most sugars are D but some glycoconjugates have L isomers

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23
Q

Give an example of epimers?

A

D-Erythrose and D-threose

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24
Q

What are the epimers of glucose?

A

Mannose (at C2)

Galactose (at C4)

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25
Q

What is a furanose and how is it made?

A

A 5 membered ring, made when OH of C4 attacks C1

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26
Q

What is a pyranose and how is it made?

A

A 6 membered ring, made when OH of C5 attacks C1

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27
Q

What does creating furanose do?

A

It makes 1 more stereocenter

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28
Q

What does cyclization do?

A

It creates a new asymmetric center

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29
Q

What is the new center created in cyclization called?

A

It is called an anomeric center and is designated as alpha or beta

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30
Q

What is the alpha orientation?

A

OH of anomeric carbon faces down

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31
Q

What is the beta orientation?

A

OH of anomeric carbon faces up

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32
Q

How do anomers interconvert?

A

Spontaneously in solution by mutarotation

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33
Q

What are the anomers of glucose?

A

1/3 alpha

2/3 beta

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34
Q

What does the reduction of a sugar carbonyl yield?

A

An alditol

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35
Q

What does the reduction of glucose yield?

A

D-glucitol, also called sorbitol

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36
Q

What does oxidation of C1 form?

A

An aldonic acid

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37
Q

What does oxidation of C6 form?

A

A uronic acid

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38
Q

What is the aldonic acid in equilibrium with?

A

The lactone

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39
Q

What types of sugars can be oxidized?

A

Reducing sugars

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40
Q

How can monosaccharides be oxidized?

A

Only in the linear form

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41
Q

What is an oxidase?

A

Introduces O2 but not in the final compound

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42
Q

What is an oxygenase?

A

Introduces O2 in the final compound

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43
Q

What amino acids does glucose react with?

A

Valine or epsilon Lys in hemoglobin

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44
Q

What is the extent of glycation proportional to?

A

The concentration of glucose

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45
Q

What occurs after glycation?

A

A series of reactions that may give damaging products

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46
Q

Why is too much glucose bad?

A

It can cause it to react with hemoglobin and it will continue reacting to form a stable product called glycylated hemoglobin that can cause damage to the body

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47
Q

What yields an O-glycoside?

A

The elimination of water between the hydroxyl group of the anomeric carbon of a cyclic saccharide and the hydroxyl group of another compound

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48
Q

What is the bond that is formed in a glycoside called?

A

A glycosidic bond

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49
Q

What is the activated sugar in lactose biosynthesis?

A

UDP galactose

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50
Q

What do you use anytime you make a polymer?

A

UDP

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51
Q

How do you know if the sugar is a reducing sugar?

A

If you can make the anomeric carbon an aldehyde. AKA if it is a hemiacetal

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52
Q

What is a glycosidic bond (technically)?

A

An acetal

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53
Q

Where is a glycosidic bond present?

A

Present in polysaccharides

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54
Q

What is the activated sugar in lactose biosynthesis?

A

UDP-Galactose

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55
Q

What is UDP?

A

A nucleotide diphosphate that you use any time you want to make a polymer

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56
Q

How do you know if a sugar is a reducing sugar?

A

If you can open up the anomeric carbon to make an aldehyde

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57
Q

What is a glycosidic bond, technically, and where is it present?

A

It is technically an acetal and is present in polysaccharides

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58
Q

What is a souped aldehyde?

A

A hemiacetal (present in sugar rings)

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59
Q

What does sucrose do?

A

Protects glucose from oxidation

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60
Q

What is an example of a reducing sugar?

A

K=Lactose

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61
Q

What are examples of non-reducing sugars?

A

Sucrose and trehalose

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62
Q

What are the two components of starch?

A

Linear amylose and branched amylopectin

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63
Q

Where does amylopectin branch?

A

alpha 1 and 6

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64
Q

Compare glycogen and amylopectin

A

Glycogen is the animal version of amylopectin and it is more branched than amylopectin

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65
Q

Where is the linear connection in amylose?

A

alpha 1-4

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66
Q

What is the secondary structure of amylose?

A

The orientation of successive glucose residues favors the formation of a helix with a large interior core and stabilized by hydrogen bonds

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67
Q

What are the linkages of cellulose?

A

Beta 1->4 linkages

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68
Q

Compare chitin and cellulose

A

Chitin has the linkage of cellulose but between N-acetyl glucosamine units

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69
Q

Why is chitin so hard to break?

A

Because of the N-groups in it

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70
Q

What is agarose?

A

It has charged groups of sulfate and pyruvate. It can trap a large amount of water forming a gel which is the base for electrophoresis

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71
Q

What are glycoconjugates?

A

Large and present and present in the cell surface or extracellular matrix

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72
Q

What do glycoconjugates serve as?

A

Serve as sites for recognition, affinity binding for lectins, signal transduction, etc.

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73
Q

What are the 3 amino acids used in glycoconjugates?

A

Asn, Ser, Thr

74
Q

Compare glycoproteins and proteoglycans

A

Glycoproteins are smaller

75
Q

Where does the anomeric carbon of a glycoprotein attach?

A

To Ser, Thr, or Asn

76
Q

What percentage of proteins are glycosylated?

A

About half

77
Q

Where does trehalose come from?

A

Mushrooms

78
Q

What are the two types of glycoprotein linkages?

A

O linked and N linked

79
Q

What enzyme does Type A blood have?

A

GalNAc glycosyltransferase

80
Q

What enzyme does type B blood have?

A

Gal Glycosyltransferase

81
Q

What enzyme does type AB blood have?

A

Both GalNAc glycosyltransferse and Gal glycosyltransferase

82
Q

What enzyme does type O blood have?`

A

Neither GalNAc glycosyltransferase nor Gal glycosyltransferase

83
Q

What is the ABO?

A

ABO is one of 14 genetically characterized blood group systems with more than 100 different antigens, many found in tissues other than blood

84
Q

What is Erythropoetin A (EPO)?

A

A glycoprotein with both O and N linked oligosaccharides; a hormone synthesized in the kidney that stimulates production of red blood cells

85
Q

Where are linkages of O and N oligosaccharides present in EPO>

A

164 amino acid residues with N linked oligosaccharides at Asn-24, 38, and 83. and O linked oligosaccharide at Sea-136

86
Q

When is EPO administered?

A

During chemotherapy to counteract anemia

87
Q

What do oligos do?

A

Help stabilize the protein in the blood

88
Q

How is EPO misused?

A

Recombinant EPO misused by some athletes to improve performance; presumably nonglycosylated

89
Q

What is glucose converted to for storage purposes?

A

Glycogen, starch, sucrose

90
Q

What is glucose converted to in glycolysis?

A

Pyruvate

91
Q

What is glucose converted to via oxidation in the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

Ribose-5-phosphate

92
Q

What are the structural polymers of glucose?

A

Extracellular matrix and cell wall polysaccharides

93
Q

What brings glucose into the muscle?

A

Glut 1 and 4 (4 if [glucose]>4)

94
Q

When is glucose committed to the cell?

A

When it reacts with ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate

95
Q

What is glucose uptake triggered by?

A

Insulin that commands the movement of glucose transporters

96
Q

What does the absence of insulin cause?

A

It forces the release of fatty acids as energy sources for ATP production by oxidative phosphorylation

97
Q

What are the ketone body byproducts used for?

A

They are used by the brain for energy but cause acidosis in blood

98
Q

Why does glucose-6-phosphate turn into fructose-6-phosphate?

A

Because forming a 5 membered ring is more stable and makes the molecule more symmetrical

99
Q

What happens when the level of glucose-6-phosphate is too high?

A

The cell recognizes that is does not need anymore and the glucose remains outside of the cell

100
Q

What is hexokinase regulated by?

A

By the level of glucose-6-phosphate

101
Q

What kind of enzyme is PFK-1?

A

An allosteric enzyme (binds away from site)

102
Q

What regulated PKF-1?

A

High [ATP] stops PFK-1

High [AMP] starts PFK-1

103
Q

What is the committed step determined by?

A

By the intermediate step

104
Q

What enzyme do we use during exercise and why?

A

Creatine kinase to produce more ATP

105
Q

What is the oxidation step in glycolysis? (which enzyme)

A

Glyceraldehyde 3-PO4 dehydrogenase

106
Q

How does hexokinase function in glycolysis?

A

It covers the whole molecule of glucose except where we want the reaction to happen

107
Q

What are the critical amino acids in the process from glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate?

A

Glutamate and histidine

108
Q

What is different about allosteric enzymes?

A

They do not follow the Michaelis Menten equation. It is lower than the normal curve and is sinusoidal

109
Q

What amino acid is found in the formation of Schiff bases?

A

Lysine

110
Q

What needs to be consumed immediately in glycolysis?

A

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

111
Q

Describe triode phosphate isomerase?

A

8 alpha helices, then 8 parallel beta sheets with His and Glu inside

112
Q

What happens once the substrate enters the triode phosphate isomerase?

A

The enzyme covers the active site to prevent the substrate from leaving

113
Q

Why does the reaction of glyceraldehyde-3-PO4 to 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate go forward?

A

Because of 2 processes:

1) Oxidation of aldehyde
2) Addition of inorganic phosphate

114
Q

How to thioesters aid a reaction?

A

They are the critical points that make the reaction favorable because they are so high energy

115
Q

What is in the Rossman fold?

A

NAD+ (sits close to Cys)

116
Q

What makes the inorganic phosphate attack?

A

NADH has to leave and NAD+ has to enter

117
Q

What is a mutase?

A

An isomerase that changes the arrangement of molecules

118
Q

What does phosphoglyerate mutase do?

A

Uses 2 histones. His PO4 attacks position 1 then the electrons on the N of the His that just attacked take the PO4 to switch the two positions

119
Q

What is the last step in glycolysis?

A

An irreversible substrate phosphorylation

120
Q

What does amylase do?

A

It takes everything and breaks it down completely

121
Q

What is the function of alpha amylase in saliva?

A

It cleaves alpha (1->4) linkages from the nonreducing ends but cannot cleave alpha (1->6) linkage

122
Q

How does digestion continue after amylase?

A

alpha(1->6) glucosidase is required to remove the limit dextrin which exposes more alpha(1->4) linked saccharides

123
Q

Why does glycogen have so many branches?

A

Because you want to produce as much glucose as quickly as possible

124
Q

Compare isomerization of glucose phosphate from 1 to 6 to phosphoglycerate from 3 to 2

A

Isomerization of glucose PO4 uses His while isomerization of phosphoglycerate uses Ser as PO4 carrier

125
Q

What is pyruvate?

A

A multipurpose material that can be used in catabolic and anabolic processes

126
Q

When does pyruvate turn to lactate?

A

It reduces to lactate when tissues are insufficiently aerobic to oxidize the NADH from glycolysis

127
Q

What is pyruvate the vehicle for?

A

For transporting ammonia from muscles to liver via alanine formation

128
Q

What does high pH do?

A

Activates ATP

129
Q

How do RBC make ATP?

A

Glucose to pyruvate makes 2 ATP then pyruvate to lactate

130
Q

What does pyruvate make under anaerobic conditions?

A

2 lactate or 2 ethanol + CO2

131
Q

What does pyruvate make in aerobic conditions?

A

Acetyl-CoA

132
Q

What is the critical part of vitamin B1 and why?

A

The thiazolium ring because it can be deprotonated

133
Q

What does TPP do?

A

Aids in the transformation of pyruvate to lactate because it acts as a nucleophile. This is why Vitamin B1 is so important

134
Q

How much glucose does the entire body need and how much does the brain need?

A

Whole body requires 160 grams, brain requires 120

135
Q

How much glucose do glycogen reserves provide?

A

190 g

136
Q

How much glucose is in body fluids?

A

20 g

137
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

Synthesis of new glucose

138
Q

How many oz of protein should we consume in one day?

A

2 oz

139
Q

What is masonic acid?

A

3 C dicarboxylic acid

140
Q

What is succincic acid?

A

4 C dicarboxylic acid

141
Q

What is Glutamic acid?

A

5 C dicarboxylic acid

142
Q

When does gluconeogenesis occur?

A

When we have low glucose concentration

143
Q

What are the gluconeogenic starting materials?

A

Lactate, glycerol, amino acids

144
Q

Which organs do gluconeogenesis?

A

The liver and kidney

145
Q

What are the two main functions of the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

1) Provide NADPH for general biosynthesis

2) Provide ribose-5-PO4 for nucleotide and nucleic acid synthesis

146
Q

What amino acids make glutathione?

A

Cysteine
Glutamate
Glycine

147
Q

Where do glycolysis and gluconeogenesis occur?

A

In the cytosol

148
Q

How do we form aspartate?

A

Oxaloacetate forms it using a transaminase

149
Q

What kind of group is CoA?

A

A thiol group

150
Q

What amino acid is in CoA?

A

Adenine

151
Q

Why is lipoic acid critical?

A

It is a dithiol attached to lysine and it is critical for movement

152
Q

What is important about citrate synthase?

A

It uses 2 His and an Asp

153
Q

What does aconitase use?

A

Uses iron sulfur protein (metaloprotein) but the iron is not heme. Has 3 organic S and 4 inorganic S. Organic S comes from cysteine. Used for dehydration rehydration

154
Q

Where do most amino acids come from?

A

From the krebs cycle

155
Q

What are the two sources of NADPH?

A

Pentose phosphate pathway and malic enzyme

156
Q

What is the fatty acid transporter?

A

Carnitine

157
Q

When do we need a transporter?

A

When the compound has 12 or more carbon

158
Q

What does propynyl-CoA result from?

A

An odd numbered FA

159
Q

What coenzyme is needed for methyl malonyl mutase?

A

Coenzyme B12

160
Q

What are the main ketone bodies?

A

Acetoacetate and D-beta-hydroxybutyrate

161
Q

What are exported as energy for the heart, skeletal muscle, kidney, and brain?

A

Acetoacetate and D-beta-hydrocybutyrate

162
Q

What does PEP make?

A

Glucose and the following amino acids:
Ser, Gly, Cys, Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan
It is in equilibrium with oxaloacetate

163
Q

What do you need for the krebs cycle to occur?

A

Oxaloacetate

164
Q

Why is citrate the carrier for acetyl CoA?

A

Because it can move in and out of the mitochondria

165
Q

Synthesis of fatty acids occurs where?

A

The cytosol

166
Q

Catabolism of fatty acids occurs where?

A

The mitochondria

167
Q

What does succinyl Co-A make?

A

Pyrophins and heme

168
Q

What does pyruvate make and how?

A

Acetyl CoA
Oxaloacetate via pyruvate carboxylase
Malata via malic enzyme

169
Q

What does citrate make?

A

Fatty acids, sterols

170
Q

What does alpha ketoglutarate make?

A

Glutamate

171
Q

What does glutamate make?

A

Purines and the following amino acids:
Glu
Pro
Arg

172
Q

What does oxaloacetate make?

A

Equilibrium with PEP

Makes aspartate and Asparagine

173
Q

What does asparagine make?

A

Pyrimidines

174
Q

Where does the glyoxylate cycle occur?

A

In the glyoxysome

175
Q

apo-C function?

A

Activates lipase because they have receptors

176
Q

What are chylomicrons?

A

They are like a cell but they have a single layer and are filled with fats

177
Q

How many electrons do we produce thru beta oxidation for palmitic acid?

A

28

178
Q

How many acetyl coA do we produce for palmitic acid?

A

8 acetyl coA

179
Q

How many electrons do 8 acetyl co A produce?

A

64

180
Q

General steps of beta oxidation?

A

Oxidation, dehydration, oxidation, fermentation

Bio 3100 (6 decks)

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