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exam 3 keiser Flashcards

1
Q

what is evolution

A

change in the genetic compostiion of populations over time/alelle frequencies across generation

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2
Q

Evolutionary theory

A

how and why evolution occurs

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3
Q

Evolutionary theory

A

how and why evolution occurs

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4
Q

foundations of evolutions

A

variation, natural selection, heritability, genetic drift, common ancestors

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5
Q

variation

A

genotypes influence different phenotypes

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6
Q

heritability

A

phenotypes are passed down from parents to offspring via genes

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6
Q

heritability

A

phenotypes are passed down from parents to offspring via genes

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7
Q

genetic drift

A

more variation can arise through mutations

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8
Q

decesent with modifcation

A

charles darwin and lyell’s theory about evolution

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9
Q

endemic species

A

exist in only one location

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10
Q

alfred wallace

A

co founder of evolution, mostly known for biogeography

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11
Q

evolutionary synthesis

A

happened afte rhte discovery of mendelian genetics, reconciled evolution and genetics (1950s)

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12
Q

fitness

A

: the sucess of a pheontype regarding survival and reproductive capability RELATIVE TO OTHER PHENOTYPES

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13
Q

adaption

A

beneficial trait that spreads through a population by natural selection (also the process that produces it)

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14
Q

what generates variation

A

mutation and migration

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15
Q

what reduces variation (sometimes)

A

selection and nonrandom mating

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16
Q

mutations

A

changes in nucleotide sequences taht occur in individuals

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17
Q

genetic drift

A

small changes in allele freuence that produce large changes over time

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18
Q

when is genetic drift most effect

A

in small popualtions, with neutral mutations over time

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19
Q

allele frequency

A

the proportion of each allele in the “gene pool”

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20
Q

what does at allele frequence of 1.0 / 0.5/ 0 mean?

A

1.0 - everyone has this allele (fixation)
0.5 = half of the population has this allele
0 = no one has this allele

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21
Q

population bottlenecks

A

caused by extreme declines in populaiton size, reducing genetic variation in the survivng population (elephant seals)

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22
Q

founder effects

A

initiation of a new population with fewer individuals, reducing variation in the survivng population

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23
Q

migration

A

movemnet of alleles from one population to another, increased variations (gene flow)

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24
Q

selection

A

reduces variation sometimes (natural selection reduces individuals with deleterious allelles

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25
Q

what is selection usually represented by

A

frequency distributions

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26
Q

frequency distributiosn

A

vizualize count data, can show absolute frequences or relative frequences, like proportions or percentages

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27
Q

sexual selection

A

when individuals choose partners based on thier charactersitics (can lead to things like long tails, colorations)

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28
Q

modes of selection

A

directional, disruptive, stablizing

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29
Q

direction selection

A

more colorful moths are eat by birds, grey moths survive and reproduce

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30
Q

stabilizing selection

A

when individuals closest to the mean have the highest fitness, reduces variation but doesnt change the man (purifying selection)

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31
Q

disruptive selection

A

increaes variation can generate polymorphisms

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32
Q

polymorphisms

A

stable, discrete categories of pheotypes - smaller beaked birds have an advantage (can eat small seeds) big beaked birds have an advantage (can crack big seeds), medium beaked birds have it rough

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33
Q

heterozygote advantage

A

in changing condiitons, heterozygous indivs outperform homozygotes, which helps maintain allele variety.

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34
Q

Geographic variation

A

genetic variation is maintained in populatiosn in different geographic regions with different selective pressures

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35
Q

Frequence dependent selection

A

maintains genetic variations - polymorphisms can be maintained when its fitness is determined by its frequencey (scale eating fish, the rarer type will always have less competitions)

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36
Q

artifical selection

A

purposefully guided by humans with a goal in mind

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37
Q

agricultural research

A

long term selection experiemnts showed that selection can result in strong phenotypic differences and that trait change can be reversed

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38
Q

what does artificial selection need to function

A

existing genetic variation

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39
Q

heritability

A

estimates the proportion of variation in a trait determined by inherited genes and the enviornment

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40
Q

what does it mean if H^2 = 1

A

All variation in a population is due to genetic differences

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41
Q

what does it mean if H^2 = 0

A

no genetic varioan; all variaiton in the population comes from differences in the enviornments experiences by the individuals

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42
Q

equation for hertiability

A

variation inherited / (vinherited + venviornment)

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43
Q

what is heritability not

A

its is not genetic determination

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44
Q

factors that affect heritability

A

precision of measurement, enviornmental change, migration/gene flow, inbreeding

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45
Q

the higher the heritability estimate -

A

the easier it may be to modify that trait via artificial selection

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46
Q

The breeders equation

A

a foundation toool in quantitiative genetis, used to prdict evolutionary change - R = h^2S (h^2 = heritability, s = selection differential, R = response to selection)

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47
Q

what does the breeder’s equation assume

A

the trait of interest is not correlated with other traits affecting fitness

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48
Q

population genetic structures

A

can be described by frequences (0-1) of alleles and genotypes

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49
Q

formula of allele frequency

A

p = 2NAA + NAa = 2N (same with aa for the recessive)

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50
Q

p+q

A

ALWAYS 1

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51
Q

fixed

A

p = 1, q = 0 (or vice versa)

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52
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A

conditions for populaiton allele frequencies to stay the same

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53
Q

what are the 5 conditions for hardy weinberg equilibrium

A

no mutation, no selection, no gene flow, population size is infinite, and mating is random

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54
Q

how quickly can you restore HW equilibrium

A

one generation

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55
Q

what do deviations from HWE show?

A

that evolution is occuring

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56
Q

trade-offs in sexual selection

A

more likely to reproduce, but less likely to survive

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57
Q

2 main forms of sexual selection

A

intrasexual competition, mate choice

58
Q

good genes hypothesis

A

some traits are honest signals of mate quality

59
Q

runaway sexual selection

A

offspring will inherit their parent’s ornamental traits and preferences for that trait

60
Q

genetic (sexual) conflict

A

when genes that govern males and female traits are anatgonistic

61
Q

mutations

A

novel gene combos

62
Q

nucleotide substitutions

A

changes in one nucleotide in a DNA sequence

63
Q

synonymous substitutions

A

do not affect the function of a protein - neutral

64
Q

nonsynonymous substitution

A

affect protein function, can ve deleterious, neutral or advantageous

65
Q

hybrid incompability

A

offspring ofspring of individuals from different populations or even species are worse off

66
Q

where are rates of substitution higher?

A

at synonymous sites vs non synonymous sits

67
Q

neutral theory of molecular evolution

A

majority of evolutionary changes occursa t the molecular level and most genetic variation is due to random genetic drift of alleles that are selectively neutral

68
Q

although genetic drift of exist gene variants is stronger in small populations

A

the rate of fixation of new neutral mutations is independent of population size

69
Q

molecular clock

A

the rae of fixation of new neutral mutions is relatively constant, so it can be used as a molecular clock to calculate evolutionary diverengce times between species

70
Q

dn

A

of nonsynonymous substitutiosn per non synonymous site

71
Q

ds

A

numbers of synonymous substitutions per synonymous site

72
Q

dn/ds = 1

A

neutral

73
Q

dn/ds > 1

A

positive directional selection

74
Q

dn/ds < 1

A

stabilizing selection

75
Q

gene expression

A

might account for mucch of the evolution of diverse body forms we observe across living organisms

76
Q

homeotic mutations

A

replaces one structure with another

77
Q

genetic switches

A

can turn genes on or off, regulate gene expression

78
Q

heterometry

A

different amount of gene expression

79
Q

heterochrony

A

different timing of gene expression

80
Q

heterotropy

A

spatial diference in difference in gene expression

81
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary history of genetic relationships

82
Q

phylogenetic tree

A

visual reconstruction of shared history

83
Q

lineage

A

series of ancestor and descendant populations

84
Q

components of a phylogenetic tree

A

vertical distances between branches have no meaning, order after a node is arbitrary

85
Q

nodes

A

indicate timing of splitting events

86
Q

split events

A

a speciation event, gene dupliction, transmission event etc

87
Q

homologous features

A

shared by two or more species and inherited fro m a common ancestor

88
Q

ingroup

A

the group of organisms of primary interest

89
Q

outgroup

A

species closely related to by phylogenetically outside of the group of interst

90
Q

parsimony

A

the preferred explanation of observed data is the simplest explanation

91
Q

convergent evolution

A

different selective pressures on different taxa led to similar traits

92
Q

Taxa

A

expected to be monophyletic - can be cut off from a phlyogenetic tree witha s ingle cut in the tree

93
Q

polyphyletic groups

A

do not include its common ancestory - birds and mammals are warm blooded, but it doesnt inlcude their common ancestors

94
Q

paraphyletic

A

do no include all the decsendants of a common group - reptiles inlcudes turtles, snakes etc, ut not birds even through they are within that lineage

95
Q

how is a molecular clock calibrated

A

the fossil record, known times of divergence, biogeographic data

96
Q

species

A

groups of organisms that share genetic and morphological attributes, and are reproductively isolate from other such

97
Q

speciation

A

Divergence of biological lineages and emergence of reproductive isolation

98
Q

what did linneaus base the taxonomic system off

A

appearance / morphological concept

99
Q

polymorphisms

A

multipe phenotypes within one species

100
Q

cryptic species

A

two or more species that are indistinguisable

101
Q

biological species concept

A

species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural poplaitons that re reproductively isolaed from other such groups

102
Q

reproductive isolation

A

two groups can not make viable offspring

103
Q

complications with biological species conept

A

asexual reproduction, extinct groups only known from fossils, hybridization between closely related species

104
Q

phylogenetic / lineage species concept

A

a species is a branch on a phylogeny which ahs a history that starts at a species event and ends at another speciation or extinction

105
Q

Dobzhansky Muller model

A

genetic basis for disruptiv selection which leads to speciation

106
Q

hybrid incompatibility

A

two species interbreed but their offspring are bad at surviving so they eventually stop breeding wth each other

107
Q

hybrid zones

A

when reproductive isolation is incomplete

108
Q

what maintains species barriers

A

hybrid suffering

109
Q

do hybrid zones always reinforce species barriers

A

no, sometimes they can relax barrier and act as a bridge between species

110
Q

allopatric speciation

A

speciation that results when a pop is divided by a physical barrier

111
Q

sympatric speciaiton

A

no physical isolation, occurs within the same population

112
Q

sister species

A

species that are each others closeset relatives can arise on opposite sides of the barrier

113
Q

ecological speciation

A

divergent natural selection ebtween contransting ecological enviornemnt

114
Q

ecological speciation

A

divergent natural selection ebtween contransting ecological enviornments

115
Q

polyploidy

A

the duplication of sets of chromosomes within indivs, can result in complete reproductive idolation in 2 generations

116
Q

temporal isolation

A

changes in breeding season can cause reproductive isolation

117
Q

behavioral isolation

A

mating and stuff are different

118
Q

adaptive radiation

A

rapid diversification of a large number of descendant species from a single ancestor species that now inhabit a variety of enviornments

119
Q

who has high speciation rates

A

groups with poor dispersal abilites, and lineages with strong sexual selection

120
Q

stratigraphy

A

the study of geological strata - the oldest rocks on the bottom strata and the new rocks on top

121
Q

radioisotopes

A

decay in a predictable pattern over long period of time

122
Q

half-life

A

half of the atoms in a radioisotope decay to become a different, stable (nonradioactive) isotope

123
Q

radiometric dating

A

the use of radiosotopes to date fossils and rocks is known as radiometric dating

124
Q

paleontology

A

extinct life

125
Q

3 time periods to know

A

archean cambrian creataceous

126
Q

continental drift

A

the movement of continents due to plate tectonics

127
Q

plate tectonics

A

geophysical movements of the “plates that make up the Earth’s layer

128
Q

pangea

A

big ass continenet

129
Q

mass extintictions

A

things like meteors, sea level

130
Q

atmospheric changes

A

atmosphere did not have much oxygen until cyanobacteria came on the scene

131
Q

more oxygen

A

big ass bugs

132
Q

permineralization

A

occurs when an organism is buried in sediment and empty spaces are filled with minerals

133
Q

holotype

A

a single physical speciment used to describe a species

134
Q

casts and molds

A

the organisms dissolves and leaves an organism shaped hole

135
Q

impressions

A

trace fossil that hint at an extinct organisms biological activity but don’t contain any organic material

136
Q

abiogenisis

A

origin of life, RNA first hypothesis

137
Q

Miller - Urey Experiment

A

tested the chemical origin of life hypothesis and produced ovr 20 amino acids from chemicals and electricity

138
Q

cambrian explosion

A

glaciers recede, increasing o2, and huge explosion of biological diversity

139
Q

mass extinctions

A

end of ordovician -> glaciers formed and oceans receded and 75% of things died

140
Q

permian

A

pangea, and at th end there were massive volcanic eruptions that cooled the climate and then created a glaciation event - 96% of all multicellular species became extinct at the end of the permian

141
Q

KT extinction

A

at the end of the cretaceous period, meteor struck in mexico and killed alll non - avian dinosuars plant life died too

142
Q

hominin evolution

A

bipedal locomotion, split off from chimpanezees

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