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A&P II > Exam 3 copy > Flashcards

Exam 3 copy Flashcards

2
Q

Neural Innervation of the GI Tract:Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

A
  • Intrinsic set of nerves (“brain of gut”)- Neurons extending from esophagus to anus- Plexuses: myenteric plexus (GI tract motility) and submucosal plexus (controlling secretions)
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3
Q

Neural Innervation of the GI Tract:Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A
  • Extrinsic set of nerves- Parasympathetic stimulation: increases secretion and activity by stimulating ENS.- Sympathetic stimulation: decreases secretions and activity by inhibiting ENS.
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4
Q

Peritoneal Folds

A

Peritoneal Folds

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5
Q

External and Internal Anatomy of the Stomach

A

External and Internal Anatomy of the Stomach

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6
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach:Salivary Amylase

A

Salivary amylase: - digestion continues until inactivated by acidic gastric juice

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7
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach: Lingual Lipase

A

Lingual lipase: - acidic gastric juice activates lingual lipase - digest triglycerides into fatty acids and diglycerides

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8
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach:HCl

A

HCl - Parietal cells secrete H+ and Cl- separately but net effect is HCl- Kills many microbes, denatures proteins

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9
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach:Pepsin

A

Pepsin - Secreted by chief cells - Secreted as inactive pepsinogen - Digests proteins

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10
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach:Gastric Lipase

A

Gastric Lipase - Splits triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides

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11
Q

Absorption in the Stomach

A
  • Small amount of nutrient absorption- Some water, ions, short chain fatty acids, certain drugs (aspirin) and alcohol.
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12
Q

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

A

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

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13
Q

Metabollism

A

All chemical reactions occuring in the body.

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14
Q

Catabolism

A

Catabolism = breaking down of complex molecules.

Catabolism is exergonic—it produces more energy than it consumes.

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15
Q

Anabolism

A

Anabolism = combine simple molecules to create complex molecules

Anabolism is endergonic = consuming more energy than it produces

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16
Q

Overview of Cellular Respiration

A

Overview of Cellular Respiration

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17
Q

Glycolysis Reactions

A

Glycolysis Reactions

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18
Q

The Krebs Cycle is also known as…

A

The Krebs Cycle is also known as the citric acid cycle

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19
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

A

In the matrix of the mitochondria

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20
Q

What is the Krebs cycle?

A

A series of REDOX reactions.

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21
Q

What are the important processes and steps of the Krebs cycle?

A
  • 2 decarboxylation reactions release CO2
  • Reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) are the most important outcome
  • One molecule of ATP generated by substrate-level phosphorylation
22
Q

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

A

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

23
Q

Lipoproteins - How are they categorized and named?

A

Lipoprotiens are categorized and named according to density (ratio of lipids to proteins)

24
Q

Lipoproteins - Chylomicrons

A
  • Forms in small intestine mucosal epithelial cells
  • Transport dietary lipids to adipose tissue
25
Q

Lipoproteins - Very Low-Density Lipoproteins (VLDLs)

A
  • Forms in hepatocytes
  • Transport endogenous lipids to adipocytes
26
Q

Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

A
  • “bad” cholesteral
  • Carry 75% of total cholesterol in blood
  • Deliver to body cells for repair and synthesis
  • Can deposit cholesterol in fatty plaques.
27
Q

High-Density Lipoproteins (HDLs)

A
  • “good” cholesteral
  • Remove excess cholesterol from body cells and blood
  • Deliver to liver for elimination
28
Q

Lipid catabolism (lipolysis)

A
  • Triglycerides split into glycerol and fatty acids
  • Must be done in muscle, liver, and adipose tissue to oxidise fatty acids
  • Enhanced by epinephrine and norepinephrine
29
Q

Lipid anabolism (lipogenesis)

A
  • Liver cells and adipose cells can synthesize lipids from glucose or amino acids
  • Occurs when more calories are consumed than needed for ATP production.
30
Q

Heat and Energy Balance - Hypothalamic thermostat is…

A
  • Located in the preoptic area
  • It is the heat-losing (cooling) center and heat-promoting (warming) center.
31
Q

What functions does the kidney perform?

A
  • Regulation of blood ionic concentration
    • (most important ions = Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl- and HPO42- [phosphate ions])
  • Regulation of blood pH
    • (via secretion of H+ into urine and conservation of HCO3- [bicarbonate ions], which are an important buffer of H+ in the blood. Normal blood pH is 7.4 +/- 0.2)
  • Regulation of blood volume
    • (inc. BV = inc. in BP; kidneys inc. or dec. BV by conserving or eliminating water in the urine)
  • Regulation of blood pressure
  • Also:
  • Maintenance of blood osmolarity
  • Production of hormones (Calcitrol [the active form of vitamin D] and erythropoietin)
  • Regulation of blood glucose level
  • Excretion of wastes from metabolic reactions and foreign substances (drugs or toxins)
32
Q

Cortical Nephrons - Overview

A
  • Cortical nephrons comprise 80-85% of nephrons
  • Renal corpuscle located in outer portion of cortex and short loops of Henle extend only into outer region of medulla
33
Q

Cortical Nephrons - Flow

A

Cortical Nephrons - Flow

34
Q

Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Overview

A
  • Juxtamedullary nephrons comprise the other 15-20% of nephrons
  • Renal corpuscle is deep in cortex and long loops of Henle extend deep into medulla
  • Receive blood from peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
  • Ascending limb has thick and thin regions
  • Enable kidneys to secrete either very dilute or very concentrated urine.
35
Q

Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Flow

A

Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Flow

36
Q

Tubular Reabsorption

A

Reabsorption is the return of most of the filtered water and many solutes to the bloodstream.

  • About 99% of filtered water is reabsorbed
  • Proximal convoluted tubule cells make largest contribution
  • Solutes are reabsorbed by both active and passive processes
37
Q

Tubular Secretion

A

Tubular secretion is the transfer of material from blood into tubular fluid.

  • Secretion of H+ helps control blood pH
  • Secretion helps eliminate substances from the body
38
Q

Summary of Filtration, Reabsorption and Secretion in the Nephron Collecting Duct

A

Summary of Filtration, Reabsorption and Secretion in the Nephron Collecting Duct

39
Q

Body Fluid Compartments

A

Body Fluid Compartments

40
Q

The body can gain water by…

A

The body can gain water by:

  • Ingestion of liquids and moist foods (2300 mL/day)
  • Metabolic synthesis of water during cellular respiration (200 mL/day)
41
Q

The body can lose water through…

A

The body can lose water through:

  • Kidneys (1500 mL/day)
  • Evaporation from skin (600 mL/day)
  • Exhalation from Lungs (300 mL/day)
  • Feces (100 mL/day)
42
Q

Intracellular Fluid (ICF) vs. Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

A
  • ECF’s most abundant cation is Na+, anion is Cl-
  • ICF most abundant cation is K+, anions are proteins and phosphates (HPO42-)
  • Na+/K+ pumps play a major role in keeping K+ high inside cells and Na+ high outside cells.
43
Q

Sodium (Na+)

A
  • Most abundant ion in ECF
  • 90% of extracellular cations
  • Plays pivotal role in fluid and electrolyte balance because it accounts for almost half of the osmolarity of ECF
  • Level in blood is controlled by:
    • Aldosterone—increases renal absorption
    • ADH—if sodium is too low, ADH release stops
    • Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)—increases renal excretion
44
Q

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

A
  • 2nd most prevalent extracellular anion
  • Concentration increases in blood passing through systemic capillaries picking up carbon dioxide
    • Carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid which dissociates
    • HCO3- drops in pulmonary capillaries when carbon dioxide is exhaled
  • Chloride shift helps maintain correct balance of anions in ECF and ICF
  • Kidneys are main regulators of blood HCO3-
    • Can form and release HCO3- when blood level is low or excrete excess to the the urine if blood level is high.
45
Q

Calcium (Ca2+)

A

Most abundant mineral in body:

  • 98% of calcium in adults is in skeleton and teeth
  • In body fluids, main an extracellular cation
  • Plays important roles in blood clotting, neurotransmitter release, muscle tone, and excitability of nervous and muscle tissue.

Concentration is regulated by parathyroid hormone:

  • Stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium from bone—resorption
  • Also enhances reabsorption from glomerular filtrate
  • Increases production of calcitrol to increase absorption from GI tract
46
Q

Acid-Base Balance

A
  • Keeping H+ concentration (pH) of body fluids at an appropriate level is a major homeostatic challenge.
  • 3D shape of proteins sensitive to pH
  • Diets with large amounts of proteins produce more acids than bases, which acidifies blood
  • Several mechanisms help maintain pH of arterial blood between 7.35 and 7.45
  1. Buffer systems
  2. Exhalation of CO2
  3. Kidney excretion of H+
47
Q

Acid-Base Imbalances

A

The normal pH range of arterial blood is between 7.35 and 7.45

  • Acidosis = blood pH below 7.35 (acidic)
  • Alkalosis = blood pH above 7.45 (basic)
48
Q

What are the major physiological effects of acid-base imbalances?

A
  • Acidosis—results in depression of synaptic transmission in CNS
  • Alkalosis—results in overexcitability of CNS and peripheral nerves
49
Q

Respiratory Acidosis

A

Respiratory Acidosis:

  • Abnormally high PCO2 in systemic arterial blood
  • Cause is inadequate exhalation of CO2
  • Any condition that decreases movement of CO2 out—emphysema, pulmonary edema, airway obstruction
  • Kidneys can help raise blood pH
  • Goal is to increase exhalation of CO2 - ventilation therapy
50
Q

Respiratory Alkalosis

A

Respiratory Alkalosis:

  • Abnormally low PCO2 in systemic arterial blood
  • Cause is hyperventilation due to oxygen deficiency from high altitude or pulmonary disease, stroke, or severe anxiety.
  • Renal compensation can help.
  • One simple treatment: breathe into a paper bag for a short time

A&P II (5 decks)

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