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A&P II > Exam 3 (Chapters 24-27) > Flashcards

Exam 3 (Chapters 24-27) Flashcards

1
Q

What are the GI tract (aka, alimentary canal) organs?

A

Mouth, most of pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.

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2
Q

What are the accessory digestive organs?

A

Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas.

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3
Q

Organs of the Digestive System

A

Organs of the Digestive System

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4
Q

What are the six functions of the digestive system?

A
  1. Ingestion (taking in foods and liquids) 2. Secretion (of water, acid, buffers and enzymes into lumen) 3. Mixing and Propulsion (motility) 4. Digestion (mechanical digestion churns food; chemical digestion - hydrolysis) 5. Absorption (entrance of ingested and secreted liquids, ions and digestive products into blood or lymph) 6. Defecation (elimination of feces)
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5
Q

Layers of the GI Tract

A

Layers of the GI Tract

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6
Q

Neural Innervation of the GI Tract: Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

A
  • Intrinsic set of nerves (“brain of gut”) - Neurons extending from esophagus to anus - Plexuses: myenteric plexus (GI tract motility) and submucosal plexus (controlling secretions)
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7
Q

Neural Innervation of the GI Tract: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A
  • Extrinsic set of nerves - Parasympathetic stimulation: increases secretion and activity by stimulating ENS. - Sympathetic stimulation: decreases secretions and activity by inhibiting ENS.
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8
Q

Peritoneal Folds

A

Peritoneal Folds

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9
Q

Deglutition (Swallowing)

A

Deglutition (Swallowing)

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10
Q

External and Internal Anatomy of the Stomach

A

External and Internal Anatomy of the Stomach

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11
Q

Mechanical Digestion in the Stomach

A

Mixing waves - gentle, rippling peristaltic movements - creates chyme

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12
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach: Salivary Amylase

A

Salivary amylase: - digestion continues until inactivated by acidic gastric juice

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13
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach: Lingual Lipase

A

Lingual lipase: - acidic gastric juice activates lingual lipase - digest triglycerides into fatty acids and diglycerides

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14
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach: HCl

A

HCl - Parietal cells secrete H+ and Cl- separately but net effect is HCl - Kills many microbes, denatures proteins

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15
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach: Pepsin

A

Pepsin - Secreted by chief cells - Secreted as inactive pepsinogen - Digests proteins

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16
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach: Gastric Lipase

A

Gastric Lipase - Splits triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides

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17
Q

Absorption in the Stomach

A
  • Small amount of nutrient absorption - Some water, ions, short chain fatty acids, certain drugs (aspirin) and alcohol.
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18
Q

Relation of the Pancreas to the Liver, Gallbladder, and Duodenum

A

Relation of the Pancreas to the Liver, Gallbladder, and Duodenum

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19
Q

The Liver

A

The Liver

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20
Q

Gallbladder

A
  • A pear-shaped sac in the posterior surface of the liver - Contraction of smooth muscle fibers eject contents of gall bladder into cystic duct - Functions to store and concentrate bile produced by the liver until it is needed in the small intestine - Absorbs water and ions to concentrate bile up to ten-fold
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21
Q

Other Crucial Functions of the Liver

A
  • Carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism - Processing of drugs and hormones - Storage - Phagocytosis - Activation of Vitamin D
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22
Q

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

A

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

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23
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine: Carbohydrates

A
  • pancreatic amylase - ɑ-dextrinase of the brush border acts on ɑ-dextrins - common disaccharides are not acted on until the small intestine—sucrose, maltose and lactose
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24
Q

Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine: Proteins

A
  • trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and elastase from pancreas - aminopeptidase and dipeptidase in brush border
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25
Q

Daily Volumes of Fluid Ingested, Secreted, Absorbed and Excreted from the GI tract

A

Daily Volumes of Fluid Ingested, Secreted, Absorbed and Excreted from the GI tract

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26
Q

Daily Volumes of Fluid Ingested, Secreted, Absorbed and Excreted from the GI Tract: Ingested and Secreted

A
  • Saliva (1 liter) - Ingestion of liquids (2.3 liters) - Gastric juice (2 liters) - Bile (1 liter) - Pancreatic juice (2 liters) - Intestinal juice (1 liter) Total ingested and secreted = 9.3 liters
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27
Q

Daily Volumes of Fluid Ingested, Secreted, Absorbed and Excreted from the GI Tract: Absorbed

A
  • Small intestine (8.3 liters) - Large intestine (0.9 liters) Total absorbed = 9.2 liters
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28
Q

Daily Volumes of Fluid Ingested, Secreted, Absorbed and Excreted from the GI Tract: Excreted

A
  • Excreted in feces (0.1 liter)
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29
Q

Anatomy of the Large Intestine

A

Anatomy of the Large Intestine

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30
Q

Anatomy of the Large Intestine (continued)

A

Anatomy of the Large Intestine (continued)

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31
Q

Metabollism

A

All chemical reactions occuring in the body.

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32
Q

Catabolism

A

Catabolism = breaking down of complex molecules.

Catabolism is exergonic—it produces more energy than it consumes.

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33
Q

Anabolism

A

Anabolism = combine simple molecules to create complex molecules

Anabolism is endergonic = consuming more energy than it produces

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34
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

A

ATP = “energy currency”

ADP + P + energy ⇔ ATP

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35
Q

Energy Transfer

A

Energy transfer is accomoplished through oxidation-reduction (REDOX) reactions.

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36
Q

Oxidation

A
  • Removal of electrons
  • Decrease in potential energy
  • Dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogens)
  • Liberated H is transferred by coenzymes
    • EXAMPLES:
    • Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
    • Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
  • Glucose is commonly oxidized to yield energy
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37
Q

Overview of Cellular Respiration

A

Overview of Cellular Respiration

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38
Q

Glycolysis Reactions

A

Glycolysis Reactions

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39
Q

The Krebs Cycle is also known as…

A

The Krebs Cycle is also known as the citric acid cycle

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40
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

A

In the matrix of the mitochondria

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41
Q

What is the Krebs cycle?

A

A series of REDOX reactions.

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42
Q

What are the important processes and steps of the Krebs cycle?

A
  • 2 decarboxylation reactions release CO2
  • Reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) are the most important outcome
  • One molecule of ATP generated by substrate-level phosphorylation
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43
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

Chemiosmosis

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44
Q

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

A

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

45
Q

Lipoproteins - How are they categorized and named?

A

Lipoprotiens are categorized and named according to density (ratio of lipids to proteins)

46
Q

Lipoproteins - Chylomicrons

A
  • Forms in small intestine mucosal epithelial cells
  • Transport dietary lipids to adipose tissue
47
Q

Lipoproteins - Very Low-Density Lipoproteins (VLDLs)

A
  • Forms in hepatocytes
  • Transport endogenous lipids to adipocytes
48
Q

Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

A
  • “bad” cholesteral
  • Carry 75% of total cholesterol in blood
  • Deliver to body cells for repair and synthesis
  • Can deposit cholesterol in fatty plaques.
49
Q

High-Density Lipoproteins (HDLs)

A
  • “good” cholesteral
  • Remove excess cholesterol from body cells and blood
  • Deliver to liver for elimination
50
Q

Lipid catabolism (lipolysis)

A
  • Triglycerides split into glycerol and fatty acids
  • Must be done in muscle, liver, and adipose tissue to oxidise fatty acids
  • Enhanced by epinephrine and norepinephrine
51
Q

Lipid anabolism (lipogenesis)

A
  • Liver cells and adipose cells can synthesize lipids from glucose or amino acids
  • Occurs when more calories are consumed than needed for ATP production.
52
Q

Postabsorptive State Reactions

Glucose related reactions: After the glucose from a meal has been absorbed, eventually the supply of glucose available in the blood becomes depleted. How can the body produce new glucose?

A
  • Breakdown of liver glycogen (our major source of stored carbohydrates)
  • Lipolysis (breaking down lipids)
    • Note: the fatty acid chains cannot become glucose, but the glycerol portion of a triglyceride can)
  • Gluconeogenesis using lactic acid
  • Gluconeogenesis using amino acids
53
Q

Postabsorptive State Reactions - Non-glucose related reactions

A
  • Oxidation of fatty acids
  • Oxidation of lactic acid
  • Oxidation of amino acids
  • Breakdown of muscle glycogen
54
Q

Body Temperature Homeostasis - Overview

A

Despite wide fluctuations in environmental temperatures, homeostatic mechanisms maintain normal range for internal body temperature.

55
Q

Body Temperature Homeostasis - What is the body’s core temperature and shell temperature?

A

Core temperature = 37ºC (or 98.6ºF)

vs.

Shell temperature = 1-6ºC lower than core temp.

56
Q

Body Temperature Homeostasis - Heat Production Methods

A
  • Exercise
    • A fit individual can increase heat production by 15-20 times greater than resting metabolic rate through exercise.
  • Hormones
  • Sympathetic Nervous System
    • Release of epinephrine and norepinephrine (via sympethetic activation - e.g., caused by a stressor or during exercise) increases metabolic rate.
  • Fever
  • Ingestion of food
    • Food induced thermogenesis can be anywhere between 10-20% above basal metabolic rate. The highest gain (20%) is after a protein-rich meal; the lowest (10%) is after a carbohydrate-rich meal.
  • Young age
57
Q

Heat Loss - Conduction

A

Heat lost through conduction(e.g., to clothing surrounding the body), at rest, is only about 3% of the body’s heat.

58
Q

Heat Loss - Convection

A
  • Convection = movement of a gas or liquid (e.g., the body moving air)
  • Typically we lose about 15% of our heat to the surrounding air
59
Q

Heat Loss - Radiation

A
  • Radiation = transfer of heat in the form of infrared rays (think night vision goggles/thermal imaging?)
  • A resting person in a 70ºF room loses about 60% of their heat through radiation **at rest.
  • This is our most important way of losing heat.
60
Q

Heat Loss - Evaporation

A
  • Evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin
  • At rest, a person only loses about 20% of their heat* *through evaporation.
  • During exercise, this becomes the most important method of heat loss (cooling).
61
Q

Heat and Energy Balance - Hypothalamic thermostat is…

A
  • Located in the preoptic area
  • It is the heat-losing (cooling) center and heat-promoting (warming) center.
62
Q

Vitamins are…?

A

Organic nutrients required in small amounts to maintain growth and normal metabolism.

63
Q

Vitamins do not…?

A

Vitamins do not provide energy or serve as building materials for the body.

64
Q

Most vitamins are…?

A

Coenzymes.

65
Q

Most vitamins cannot be…?

A

Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body.

66
Q

How is vitamin K produced?

A

Vitamin K is produced by bacteria in the GI tract.

67
Q

Some vitamins can be assembled from…what?

A

Some vitamins can be assembled from provitamins.

Provitamin: a precursor of a vitamin, convertible into the vitamin in an organism

EXAMPLE: ergosterol is a provitamin of vitamin D

68
Q

Vitamins are placed in one of two groups, depending on whether they are…?

A

Vitamins are grouped based on whether they are…

fat-soluble (A, D, E, K)

or

water-soluble (several B vitamins and vitamin C)

69
Q

What functions does the kidney perform?

A
  • Regulation of blood ionic concentration
    • (most important ions = Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl- and HPO42- [phosphate ions])
  • Regulation of blood pH
    • (via secretion of H+ into urine and conservation of HCO3- [bicarbonate ions], which are an important buffer of H+ in the blood. Normal blood pH is 7.4 +/- 0.2)
  • Regulation of blood volume
    • (inc. BV = inc. in BP; kidneys inc. or dec. BV by conserving or eliminating water in the urine)
  • Regulation of blood pressure
  • Also:
  • Maintenance of blood osmolarity
  • Production of hormones (Calcitrol [the active form of vitamin D] and erythropoietin)
  • Regulation of blood glucose level
  • Excretion of wastes from metabolic reactions and foreign substances (drugs or toxins)
70
Q

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys: Renal Cortex - superficial

A
  • outer cortical zone
  • inner juxtamedullary zone
  • renal columns—portions of cortex that extend between renal pyramids
71
Q

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys: Renal Medulla - inner region

A
  • several cone-shaped renal pyramids—base faces cortex and renal papilla points toward hilum
72
Q

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys: Renal Lobe

A
  • renal pyramid; overyling cortex area and half of each adjacent renal column
73
Q

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys (A)

A

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys (A)

74
Q

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys (B)

A

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys (B)

75
Q

Cortical Nephrons - Overview

A
  • Cortical nephrons comprise 80-85% of nephrons
  • Renal corpuscle located in outer portion of cortex and short loops of Henle extend only into outer region of medulla
76
Q

Cortical Nephrons - Flow

A

Cortical Nephrons - Flow

77
Q

Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Overview

A
  • Juxtamedullary nephrons comprise the other 15-20% of nephrons
  • Renal corpuscle is deep in cortex and long loops of Henle extend deep into medulla
  • Receive blood from peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
  • Ascending limb has thick and thin regions
  • Enable kidneys to secrete either very dilute or very concentrated urine.
78
Q

Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Flow

A

Juxtamedullary Nephrons - Flow

79
Q

Histology of a Renal Corpuscle

A

Histology of a Renal Corpuscle

80
Q

Tubular Reabsorption

A

Reabsorption is the return of most of the filtered water and many solutes to the bloodstream.

  • About 99% of filtered water is reabsorbed
  • Proximal convoluted tubule cells make largest contribution
  • Solutes are reabsorbed by both active and passive processes
81
Q

Tubular Secretion

A

Tubular secretion is the transfer of material from blood into tubular fluid.

  • Secretion of H+ helps control blood pH
  • Secretion helps eliminate substances from the body
82
Q

Reabsorption Routes and Transport Mechanisms

A

Reabsorption Routes and Transport Mechanisms

83
Q

Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle: Chemical composition of tubular fluid is…?

A

The chemical composition of tubular fluid is quite different from filtrate. Glucose, amino acids and other nutrients have been reabsorbed.

84
Q

Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle: Osmolarity is…?

A

Osmolarity is still close to that of blood. Reabsorption of water (osmosis) and solutes are balanced.

85
Q

Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle: For the first time, water is…?

A

For the first time, reabsorption of water is NOT automatically coupled to reabsorption of solutes. There is independent regulation of both volume and osmolarity of body fluids.

86
Q

Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle: Symporters

A

Na+-K+-2Cl- symporters function in Na+ and Cl- reabsorption.

87
Q

Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle: Little or no water is reabsorbed…where?

A

Little or no water is reabsorbed in the ascending limb. Osmolarity decreases progressively towards the end of the ascending limb.

88
Q

Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion:

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

A
  • Renin is released when blood volume and pressure decrease.
  • Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
  • ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II
89
Q

Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion:

Angiotensin II affects renal physiology by…?

A

Angiotensin II affects renal physiology by:

  1. Decreasing GFR
  2. Enhancing reabsorption of Na+, Cl-and water in the PCT
  3. Stimulates Aldosterone release by adrenal cortex
    • Stimulates principal cells in collecting ducts to reabsorb more Na+ and Cl- and secrete more K+
90
Q

Summary of Filtration, Reabsorption and Secretion in the Nephron Collecting Duct

A

Summary of Filtration, Reabsorption and Secretion in the Nephron Collecting Duct

91
Q

Evaluation of Kidney Function:

Blood Tests

A
  • Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) - measures blood nitrogen that is part of the urea resulting from catabloism and deamination of amino acids.
  • Plasma creatinine results from catabolism of creatine phosphate in skeletal muscle.
92
Q

Evaluation of Kidney Function:

Renal Plasma Clearance

A
  • Volume of blood cleared of a substance per unit time.
  • High renal plasma clearance indicates efficient exretion of a substancec into urine.
  • PAH administered intravenously to measure renal plasma flow
    • More useful in diagnosis of kidney problems than above tests.
93
Q

Ureters, Urinary Bladder and Urethra

A

Ureters, Urinary Bladder and Urethra

94
Q

Body Fluid Compartments

A

Body Fluid Compartments

95
Q

The body can gain water by…

A

The body can gain water by:

  • Ingestion of liquids and moist foods (2300 mL/day)
  • Metabolic synthesis of water during cellular respiration (200 mL/day)
96
Q

The body can lose water through…

A

The body can lose water through:

  • Kidneys (1500 mL/day)
  • Evaporation from skin (600 mL/day)
  • Exhalation from Lungs (300 mL/day)
  • Feces (100 mL/day)
97
Q

Series of Events in Water Intoxication

A

Series of Events in Water Intoxication

98
Q

Intracellular Fluid (ICF) vs. Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

A
  • ECF’s most abundant cation is Na+, anion is Cl-
  • ICF most abundant cation is K+, anions are proteins and phosphates (HPO42-)
  • Na+/K+ pumps play a major role in keeping K+ high inside cells and Na+ high outside cells.
99
Q

Sodium (Na+)

A
  • Most abundant ion in ECF
  • 90% of extracellular cations
  • Plays pivotal role in fluid and electrolyte balance because it accounts for almost half of the osmolarity of ECF
  • Level in blood is controlled by:
    • Aldosterone—increases renal absorption
    • ADH—if sodium is too low, ADH release stops
    • Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)—increases renal excretion
100
Q

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

A
  • 2nd most prevalent extracellular anion
  • Concentration increases in blood passing through systemic capillaries picking up carbon dioxide
    • Carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid which dissociates
    • HCO3- drops in pulmonary capillaries when carbon dioxide is exhaled
  • Chloride shift helps maintain correct balance of anions in ECF and ICF
  • Kidneys are main regulators of blood HCO3-
    • Can form and release HCO3- when blood level is low or excrete excess to the the urine if blood level is high.
101
Q

Calcium (Ca2+)

A

Most abundant mineral in body:

  • 98% of calcium in adults is in skeleton and teeth
  • In body fluids, main an extracellular cation
  • Plays important roles in blood clotting, neurotransmitter release, muscle tone, and excitability of nervous and muscle tissue.

Concentration is regulated by parathyroid hormone:

  • Stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium from bone—resorption
  • Also enhances reabsorption from glomerular filtrate
  • Increases production of calcitrol to increase absorption from GI tract
102
Q

Acid-Base Balance

A
  • Keeping H+ concentration (pH) of body fluids at an appropriate level is a major homeostatic challenge.
  • 3D shape of proteins sensitive to pH
  • Diets with large amounts of proteins produce more acids than bases, which acidifies blood
  • Several mechanisms help maintain pH of arterial blood between 7.35 and 7.45
  1. Buffer systems
  2. Exhalation of CO2
  3. Kidney excretion of H+
103
Q

Acid-Base Imbalances

A

The normal pH range of arterial blood is between 7.35 and 7.45

  • Acidosis = blood pH below 7.35 (acidic)
  • Alkalosis = blood pH above 7.45 (basic)
104
Q

What are the major physiological effects of acid-base imbalances?

A
  • Acidosis—results in depression of synaptic transmission in CNS
  • Alkalosis—results in overexcitability of CNS and peripheral nerves
105
Q

Respiratory Acidosis

A

Respiratory Acidosis:

  • Abnormally high PCO2 in systemic arterial blood
  • Cause is inadequate exhalation of CO2
  • Any condition that decreases movement of CO2 out—emphysema, pulmonary edema, airway obstruction
  • Kidneys can help raise blood pH
  • Goal is to increase exhalation of CO2 - ventilation therapy
106
Q

Respiratory Alkalosis

A

Respiratory Alkalosis:

  • Abnormally low PCO2 in systemic arterial blood
  • Cause is hyperventilation due to oxygen deficiency from high altitude or pulmonary disease, stroke, or severe anxiety.
  • Renal compensation can help.
  • One simple treatment: breathe into a paper bag for a short time
107
Q

Metabolic Acidosis

A

Metabolic Acidosis:

  • Abnormally low HCO3- in systemic arterial blood
  • Loss of HCO3- from severe diarrhea or renal dysfunction
  • Accumulation of an acid other than carbonic acid—ketosis
  • Failure of kidneys to excrete H+ from metabolism of dietary proteins
  • Hyperventilation can help
  • Administer IV sodium bicarbonate and correct cause of acidosis
108
Q

Metabolic Alkalosis

A

Metabolic Alkalosis:

  • Abnormally high HCO3- in systemic arterial blood
  • Nonrespiratory loss of acid - vomiting of acidic stomach contents, gastric suctioning
  • Excessive intake of alkaline drugs (antacids)
  • Use of certain diuretics
  • Severe dehydration
  • Hypoventilation can help
  • Give fluid solutions to correct Cl-, K+

A&P II (5 decks)

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