Exam 3 C&L Flashcards
Abolishing Operation
A motivating operation that decreases the effectiveness of a consequence (a reinforcer or punishment)
Ex) If a child has eaten a lot of candy, they might not want more candy for a reward. Being full makes candy less motivating, so the full stomach is an abolishing operation
Automatic Reinforcer
A consequence of behavior that reinforces a behavior without another individual being involved.
Ex) scratching an itch is reinforced by the relief it provides, which encourages the person to continue scratching whenever they feel itchy.
Behavioral momentum
To strengthen a reinforced behavior.
Ex) A teacher asks a student to do a simple task (like picking up a pencil), and after they do that, the teacher quickly follows up with a slightly more challenging task (like doing a math problem). The student is more likely to comply because they’ve already started with an easy task, building momentum.
Conditioned Reinforcers
Something that becomes rewarding because we’ve learned to associate it with something we already like.
Ex) a sticker can be a conditioned reinforcer if a child gets stickers every time they do something good, and they start to enjoy getting stickers.
Contrived reinforcers
Any reinforcer that is provided by someone for the purpose of changing behavior
Ex) When a teacher gives a student a prize, like a toy, for completing their homework. The toy isn’t naturally related to the task, but it’s used intentionally to encourage the behavior.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter that produces a natural high and plays a major role in reinforcement.
Ex) The excitement of seeing a message triggers the release of dopamine, which makes them feel happy and motivates them to check their phone more often.
Drives
A motivational state (such as hunger) caused by a period of deprivation (as food)
Ex) Hunger is a drive that motivates someone to find food.
Drive-reduction theory
The theory of reinforcement that attributes a reinforcer’s effectiveness to the reduction of a drive
Ex) if a person is deprived of sleep, their body experiences a drive (sleep deprivation), which creates discomfort and internal tension. This drive motivates the individual to sleep. Once they sleep and the drive is reduced, the discomfort subsides, reinforcing the behavior of sleeping to maintain balance (homeostasis). The theory suggests that the person continues to seek sleep when needed to reduce the tension caused by the drive for rest.
escape-avoidance learning
A form of negative reinforcement in which the subject first learns to escape, and then to avoid, an aversive
Ex) A student receives a loud noise (aversive stimulus) when they don’t complete their homework. At first, the student learns to escape the noise by quickly finishing the homework when it’s given. Later, the student begins to avoid the noise altogether by starting the homework early, before the teacher announces it, to prevent the discomfort of the noise.
escape learning
A type of learning where an individual learns to perform a behavior to remove or avoid an unpleasant stimulus.
Example: A rat in a cage learns to press a lever to stop an electric shock, thus escaping the discomfort.
establishing operation
A motivating operation that increases the effectiveness of a consequence (a reinforcer or punishment)
Ex) A person hasn’t eaten all day, making food much more reinforcing. When they’re hungry, food becomes a more effective reward for completing a task, increasing the likelihood that they will work for the food as a consequence.
equilibrium theory
suggests that individuals strive to maintain a balance or harmony between their internal states and external environment. When there’s an imbalance or disruption, they are motivated to restore equilibrium.
Ex) A person feels uncomfortable in a situation that goes against their values. They may either change their behavior or adjust their beliefs to restore balance and reduce discomfort.
generalized reinforcers
Any secondary reinforcer that has been paired with several different reinforcers and is effective in a wide variety of situations
Ex) Money is a generalized reinforcer because it has been paired with many different rewards (food, entertainment, clothes) and is effective in motivating behavior across various situations.
instrumental learning
is a type of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.
Ex: A dog learns to sit when given a treat (positive reinforcement), so it continues sitting on command to receive treats in the future.
law of effect
The statement that behavior is a function of its consequences. So called because the strength of a behavior depends on its past effects on the environment. Implicit in the law is the notion that operant conditioning is an active process, since it is usually the behavior of the organism that, directly or indirectly produces the effect.
Ex) A child receives praise and a sticker every time they clean their room. As a result, the child is more likely to clean their room in the future because the positive consequence (praise and sticker) strengthens the behavior of cleaning.
motivating operation
Anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence. There are two kinds of motivating operations: establishing and abolishing
Ex) Anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence. There are two kinds of motivating operations: establishing and abolishing
natural reinforcers
Any reinforcer that is spontaneous consequence of a behavior. Also called automatic reinforcer
Ex) When a person puts on a coat and goes outside, they naturally feel warm, which reinforces the behavior of wearing a coat when it’s cold.
negative reinforcement
A reinforcement procedure or experience in which a behavior is followed by the removal of or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus. Sometimes called escape learning
Ex) A student turns in their homework on time to avoid being scolded by the teacher. The removal of the scolding (aversive stimulus) reinforces the behavior of submitting homework on time.
negative reinforcer
Any stimulus which, when removed following a behavior increases or maintains the strength of a behavior
Ex) A loud alarm stops ringing when a person gets out of bed. The removal of the loud noise (negative reinforcer) strengthens the behavior of getting out of bed promptly.
one-process theory
The view that avoidance and punishment involve only one procedure–operant learning
Ex) A rat learns to avoid a shock by pressing a lever. According to the one-process theory, both avoidance of the shock and the punishment (shock) are learned through operant conditioning alone, with no need for classical conditioning. The rat continues to press the lever to avoid the shock, reinforcing the behavior through negative reinforcement.
positive reinforcer
Any stimulus which presented following a behavior, increases or maintains the strength of that behavior
Ex) A child gets praise (stimulus) after cleaning their room. The praise increases the likelihood that the child will clean their room again in the future, strengthening the behavior.
premack principle
The observation that high-probability behavior reinforces low-probability behavior
Ex) A child who enjoys playing video games (high-probability behavior) is allowed to play only after they finish their homework (low-probability behavior). The opportunity to play video games reinforces the completion of homework.
primary reinforcers
Any reinforcer that is innately reinforcing that is not dependent on its association with other reinforcers. also called unconditioned reinforcers
Ex) Food is an unconditioned reinforcer because it is naturally reinforcing; people don’t need to learn to find food rewarding, as it satisfies basic survival needs.
reinforcement
An increase in the strength of a behavior due to its consequences. As a procedure, it means providing consequences for a behavior that increase or maintain the strength of that behavior
Ex) A dog sits on command and receives a treat. The treat increases the likelihood that the dog will sit again in the future, reinforcing the sitting behavior.
relative value theory
Theory of reinforcement that considers reinforcers to be behaviors rather than stimuli and that attributes a reinforcers effectiveness to its probability relative to other behaviors
Ex) A child who loves playing outside (high-probability behavior) is restricted from doing so until they finish their chores (low-probability behavior). According to the response-deprivation theory, the restricted access to the preferred activity (playing outside) increases its value, making it a stronger reinforcer for completing the less preferred behavior (chores).
response-deprivation theory
Reinforcement theory that explains a behavior is reinforcing to the extent that the organism has been deprived (relative to its baseline frequency) of performing that behavior
Ex) A child who hasn’t played video games all day (deprived of the behavior) is more likely to do their homework quickly in exchange for the chance to play video games. The deprivation of the video game-playing behavior makes it a stronger reinforcer for completing the homework.
reward learning
A process where an individual learns to associate certain behaviors with rewards, and the anticipation of these rewards motivates the behavior.
Ex: A child learns to clean their room quickly because they are rewarded with a toy afterward. Over time, the child begins to clean the room faster, anticipating the reward.
reward pathway
An area of the brain that when stimulated reinforces behavior. Also called reward center, it is thought to be key to the neurological basis of reinforcement.
Ex) When you eat your favorite food, the reward pathway is activated, releasing dopamine and making you feel pleasure, which encourages you to repeat the behavior.
satiation
The loss of effectiveness of primary reinforcers due to their repeated use
Ex) A dog is given the same treat every time it follows a command. Over time, the dog may lose interest in the treat, and it no longer motivates the dog as effectively. This happens because the dog has become “satiated” with the treat due to repeated use.
secondary reinforcers
Any reinforcer that has acquired its reinforcing properties through its association with other reinforcers. Also called conditioned reinforcer
Ex) A whistle is used as a secondary reinforcer for a dog. The dog learns to associate the sound of the whistle with the reward of a treat, so the whistle itself becomes reinforcing, even though it doesn’t have inherent value.
sidman avoidance procedure
An escape-avoidance training procedure in which no stimulus regularly precedes the aversive stimulus. Also called unsignaled avoidance
Ex) In a Sidman avoidance procedure, a rat in a box might receive a mild shock at random intervals. The rat learns to press a lever to escape the shock, but there’s no warning signal before the shock is delivered. The rat’s behavior (lever pressing) is reinforced by the removal of the shock, even though there is no specific signal predicting when the shock will occur.
two-process theory
The view that avoidance and punishment involve two procedures– Pavlovian and operant learning
Ex) In the two-process theory, a dog learns to avoid a shock in two steps. First, through Pavlovian conditioning, the dog associates a warning signal (like a light) with an impending shock, creating fear. Second, through operant conditioning, the dog learns to avoid the shock by performing a behavior (like pressing a lever) to stop the light from turning on, thereby avoiding the aversive stimulus.
unconditioned reinforcers
Stimuli that naturally reinforce behaviors because they satisfy basic biological needs, without needing to be learned or associated with other reinforcers.
Ex) Food is an unconditioned reinforcer because it naturally motivates behavior, such as eating when hungry, without any prior learning or association.
