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Anatomy > Exam 3 Blood, Lymph N CVS > Flashcards

Exam 3 Blood, Lymph N CVS Flashcards

1
Q

Veins

A

The inner lining (endothelium) of a vein is smooth, which allows for the easy flow of blood back to the heart. Veins also have a thinner wall compared to arteries because blood pressure is lower.

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2
Q

Arteries

A

Arteries also have a smooth endothelial lining.

However, they have thicker walls that contain smooth muscle and elastic tissue to withstand and regulate the higher pressure of blood being pumped from the heart.

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3
Q

One way Valves

A

Veins**: Veins, particularly those of the limbs, contain one-way valves that prevent the backflow of blood, assisting the return of blood to the heart against gravity.

Arteries**: Arteries do not contain valves since blood is pumped under pressure by the heart, which maintains one-way flow.

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4
Q

Functions

A
  • ** Veins**:
    The primary function of veins is to return deoxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary veins) from the body back to the heart.
  • Arteries:
    Arteries carry oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary arteries) from the heart to the body’s tissues and organs.
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5
Q

Capillary Exchange

A

occurs in the smallest blood vessels, the capillaries, which are the sites of nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between the blood and tissues.

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6
Q

Osmotic Pressure

A

The concentration gradients of solutes, especially plasma proteins, can affect the movement of water and solutes into or out of the capillaries.

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7
Q

Permeability of Capillaries

A

The porosity of the capillary walls can affect the rate of exchange; inflammation and certain diseases can increase permeability

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8
Q

Surface Area

A

The greater the surface area of the capillaries, the more exchange can occur.

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9
Q

Tissue Type

A

Different tissues have different rates of metabolism and thus have different requirements for oxygen, nutrients, and waste removal.

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10
Q

Aorta

A

The aorta is the largest artery in the body.

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11
Q

Function of Aorta

A

Its function is to carry oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all the body’s tissues (except for the lungs, which receive blood via the pulmonary arteries).

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12
Q

Vena Cavae (Superior and Inferior)

A

vena cavae are the largest veins in the body.

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13
Q

Functions of Vena Cavae

A

deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava returns blood from the lower half.

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14
Q

Differences of Structure Aorta vs Vena Cavae

A

the aorta has thick, elastic walls due to high blood pressure,

the vena cavae have thinner walls as they carry blood under lower pressure.

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15
Q

Differences of Oxygen Content Aorta vs Vena Cavae

A

The aorta carries oxygenated blood (from the heart to the body),

the vena cavae carry deoxygenated blood (from the body back to the heart).

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16
Q

Differences of Valves Aorta vs Vena Cavae

A

The aorta has the aortic valve at its base to prevent backflow into the left ventricle,

the vena cavae have no valves at their entrances to the heart. However, veins leading to the vena cavae may have valves to prevent backflow.

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17
Q

Differences of Location Aorta vs Vena Cavae

A

The aorta emerges from the heart and arches downwards.

the vena cava is located above the heart, and the inferior vena cava is located below the heart.

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18
Q

location of apical pulse// location of apex

A

located at the point of maximal impulse (PMI) and is typically found in the fifth intercostal space at the midclavicular line on the left side of the chest.

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19
Q

Systemic Circulation

A

is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body’s tissues and organs, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

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20
Q

Systemic Circulation START?

A

Systemic circulation begins in the left ventricle of the heart. When the heart contracts, oxygen-rich blood is pumped into the aorta, the main artery that supplies blood to the systemic circulation.

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21
Q

Systemic Circulation Route/Pathway

A

From the aorta, blood travels through the branching arteries to the smaller arterioles and eventually reaches the capillary beds in the tissues and organs.

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22
Q

Systemic Circulation ENDS?

A

After passing through the capillaries, the now deoxygenated blood collects into venules, which combine into larger veins.

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23
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then returns the oxygenated blood back to the heart.

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24
Q

Pulmonary Circulation START?

A

begins in the right ventricle of the heart. When the right ventricle contracts, it pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery.

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25
Q

Pulmonary Circulation Route/Pathway?

A

pulmonary artery splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries to carry blood to the corresponding lungs.

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26
Q

Pulmonary Circulation ENDS?

A

The freshly oxygenated blood then flows into pulmonary venules, which combine into pulmonary veins.

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27
Q

Ductus Arteriosus

A

is a blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery directly to the descending aorta, bypassing the lungs.

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28
Q

Ductus Arteriosus ACTIONS?

A

Since the fetal lungs are not expanded or functioning for gas exchange, the ductus arteriosus allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to be diverted away from the lungs and into the systemic circulation.

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29
Q

Ductus Venosus

A

is a vessel that allows oxygenated blood from the placenta to bypass the fetal liver on its way to the inferior vena cava.

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30
Q

Ductus Venosus ACTIONS?

A

Oxygenated blood from the placenta travels through the umbilical vein toward the heart.

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31
Q

Layers of The Heart

A

Pericardium (outer layer)
Myocardium (middle layer)
Endocardium (innermost layer)

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32
Q

Pericardium

A

pericardium is a double-walled sac that encloses the heart and provides protection and support.

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33
Q

Fibrous Pericardium

A

The outer layer of the pericardium is a tough, fibrous connective tissue that anchors the heart to the surrounding structures, such as the diaphragm and the sternum, and prevents the heart from over-expanding.

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34
Q

Serous Pericardium

A

The inner layer of the pericardium is a thin, double-layered membrane that produces pericardial fluid.

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35
Q

What is the 2 layer of Serous Pericardium

A

Parietal Layer
Visceral Layer (Epicardium)

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36
Q

Parietal Layer

A

The outer layer of the serous pericardium lines the fibrous pericardium.

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37
Q

Visceral Layer

A

The inner layer of the serous pericardium lies directly on the heart muscle and is considered to be the outer layer of the heart wall itself.

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38
Q

Myocardium

A

myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall and is composed primarily of cardiac muscle tissue.

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39
Q

Function of Myocardium

A

the thickest layer of the heart and is responsible for the heart’s contractile force during the cardiac cycle.

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40
Q

Endocardium

A

The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart, lining the inner chambers and valves.

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41
Q

Function of Endocardium

A

endocardium provides a smooth lining for the chambers of the heart and covers the valves of the heart.

42
Q

Four Main valves of Human Heart?

A

Tricuspid Valve
Pulmonary Valve
Mitral Valve
Aortic Valve

43
Q

Tricuspid Valve

A
  • Location:
    The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
  • Function:
    It prevents the backflow of blood into the right atrium when the right ventricle contracts.
44
Q

Pulmonary Valve

A
  • Location:
    The pulmonary valve is found at the entrance of the pulmonary artery.
  • Function:
    It prevents the backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle after the right ventricle contracts and blood is ejected into the pulmonary artery toward the lungs.
45
Q

Mitral Valve

A
  • Location:
    The mitral valve is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
  • Function:
    It prevents the backflow of blood into the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts.
46
Q

Aortic Valve

A
  • Location:
    The aortic valve is located at the entrance of the aorta, the large artery that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
  • Function:
    It prevents the backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle after the left ventricle contracts and blood is pumped into the aorta.
47
Q

Angiography

A

Angiography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize the inside of blood vessels and organs of the body, particularly the arteries, veins, and the heart chambers.

  • Function:
    It’s used to detect abnormalities or blockages in the blood vessels and guide interventional procedures.
48
Q

CO (Cardiac Output)

A

Cardiac output is the volume of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory system in one minute.

  • CO = Heart Rate (HR) x Stroke Volume (SV), where the heart rate is the number of beats per minute, and the stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricle with each beat.
49
Q

Hepatic Portal Vein

A

The hepatic portal vein is a blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver.

  • Function:
    It allows the liver to metabolize nutrients and detoxify substances before they enter the systemic circulation.
50
Q

Inflammation

A

Inflammation is the immune system’s response to infection, irritation, or injury, which involves immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators.

five cardinal signs:
redness
heat
swelling
pain
and loss of

Function.
The signs, such as swelling, are due to increased blood flow and permeability of the blood vessels, allowing immune cells and fluid to enter the affected tissues.

51
Q

Cisterna Chyli

A

The cisterna chyli is a dilated sac at the lower end of the thoracic duct into which lymph from the intestinal trunk and two lumbar lymphatic trunks flow.

  • Function:
    It serves as a storage area for lymph and chyle before the fluid drains into the bloodstream.
52
Q

Cystokines

A

Cytokines are a broad category of small proteins that are important in cell signaling. They are released by cells and affect the behavior of other cells.

  • Function:
    Cytokines can be involved in autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine signaling as immunomodulating agents.
53
Q

Antigens

A

Antigens are substances that can induce an immune response when detected by the body. They are often part of pathogens like bacteria and viruses or can be from other external sources like toxins, chemicals, or allergens.

  • Function:
    Antigens are recognized by the immune system and can lead to the production of antibodies.
54
Q

Antibodies

A

Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an antigen. They recognize and bind to specific antigens to help neutralize or destroy them.

  • Function:
    Antibodies can neutralize pathogens, mark them for destruction, or agglutinate them to be removed by phagocytes.
55
Q

Dendritic Cell or Phagocytic Cell

A

Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells that process antigen material and present it on the cell surface to the T cells of the immune system.

  • Function:
    They play a key role in initiating and shaping the immune response.
56
Q

Complement Cells (Complement System)

A

The complement system is a part of the immune system that enhances the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen’s cell membrane.

  • Function:
    It is part of the innate immune system and can be recruited and brought into action by the adaptive immune system.
57
Q

Plasma

A

Plasma is the liquid component of blood in which blood cells are suspended.

  • Function:
    It carries cells, proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, and waste products. It also serves as the medium for transporting hormones and other signaling molecules.
58
Q

Erythrocytes

A
  • Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells):
    Carry oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and take carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be exhaled.
59
Q

Leukocytes

A
  • Leukocytes (White Blood Cells):
    Part of the immune system, they help fight infections and other diseases.
60
Q

Thrombocytes

A
  • Thrombocytes (Platelets):
    Small cell fragments that play a key role in blood clotting.
61
Q

Oxyhemoglobin

A

Oxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin bound to oxygen. It is the form of hemoglobin found in oxygenated blood.

  • Function:
    It transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues where the oxygen is released.
62
Q

Natural Active Immunity

A

This type of immunity occurs when an individual is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and then develops immunity as a natural response.

Example:
A person who recovers from measles develops natural active immunity to the measles virus.

63
Q

Passive Immunity

A

Passive immunity is acquired by the transfer of antibodies from another individual or animal. This can occur naturally or via immunological preparations.

  • Example:
    A baby receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta (natural passive immunity) or an individual receives an injection of antibodies (artificial passive immunity).
64
Q

Innate Immunity

A

Innate immunity is the first line of defense and includes non-specific barriers and cellular responses to pathogens that are present from birth.

  • Examples:
    Skin, mucous membranes, phagocytic cells (like neutrophils and macrophages), natural killer cells, and the complement system.
65
Q

Natural Immunity

A

encompasses both innate and passive immunity methods that an individual is born with or acquires through natural processes.

  • Examples
    include skin and mucosal barriers, breastmilk antibodies, and the inflammatory response.
66
Q

Parts of the Immune System

A

Physical Barriers
Cells
Organs
Tissues
Molecules

67
Q

Physical Barriers

A

Skin and mucosal surfaces.

68
Q

Cells

A

White blood cells including B cells, T cells, natural killer cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.

69
Q

Organs

A

Bone marrow (produces immune cells), thymus (T cell maturation), spleen (filters blood, immune response), lymph nodes (filter lymph, immune response).

70
Q

Tissues

A

Lymphoid tissues such as tonsils and adenoids, Peyer’s patches in the gut, appendix.

71
Q

Molecules

A

Antibodies, cytokines, complement proteins.

72
Q

B Cells

A

Produced in: Bone marrow.

  • Function:
    Responsible for producing antibodies which can neutralize pathogens or mark them for destruction.
73
Q

T Cells

A

Produced in: Bone marrow but mature in the thymus.

  • Function:
    Different types of T cells have various functions including killing infected cells (cytotoxic T cells), helping other immune cells (helper T cells), and regulating the immune response (regulatory T cells).
74
Q

Description of Lymph Vessels

A

Lymph vessels, or lymphatics, are a network of thin-walled tubes that carry lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells and waste products, to the lymph nodes and eventually to the venous circulation.

75
Q

Lymph Nodes

A
  • Functions:
    Filter lymph, trap pathogens and foreign particles, and are sites of immune cell activation.
  • Examples of Lymph Nodes/Tonsils:
76
Q

Cervical Lymph Nodes

A

Located in the neck, filter lymph from the head and neck.

77
Q

Axillary Lymph Nodes

A

Located in the armpits, filter lymph from the arms and chest wall.

78
Q

Inguinal Lymph Nodes

A

Located in the groin, filter lymph from the legs and lower abdomen.

79
Q

Tonsils

A

Part of the lymphatic system and are classified into different types:

80
Q

Palatine Tonsils

A

Located at the sides of the throat.

81
Q

Pharyngeal Tonsil (Adenoids)

A

Located at the roof of the pharynx.

82
Q

Lingual Tonsils

A

Located at the base of the tongue.

83
Q

Tonsils function

A

as the immune system’s first line of defense against ingested or inhaled pathogens.

84
Q

Complement Cells (Complement System)

A

The complement system is a group of proteins that enhance (complement) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells, promote inflammation, and attack pathogens’ cell membranes.

  • Function:
    It is part of the innate immune system and can be activated through various pathways to help defend against infection and remove foreign substances.
85
Q

Number of Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

A

The typical RBC count is about 4.5 to 5.9 million cells per microliter of blood for males and 4.1 to 5.1 million cells per microliter for females.

86
Q

Number of White Blood Cells (WBCs)

A

Normally, there are approximately 4,500 to 11,000 WBCs per microliter of blood.

87
Q

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

A

The platelet count in healthy adults usually ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood.

88
Q

Types of Granular and Agranular

A

Granular Leukocytes
Agranular Leukocytes

89
Q

Granular Leukocytes

A
  • Neutrophils:
    They are the most abundant type of WBC and the first responders to microbial infection; their main role is to ingest and kill invading bacteria and fungi through phagocytosis.
  • Eosinophils:
    They combat multicellular parasites and are also involved in allergic reactions.
  • Basophils:
    They release histamine during inflammatory responses and are involved in allergic reactions.
90
Q

Agranular Leukocytes

A

Lymphocytes**:
They are vital for adaptive immunity; they consist of B cells (produce antibodies), T cells (kill infected host cells, orchestrate the immune response), and natural killer cells (attack infected or tumorous cells).

  • Monocytes:
    They are the largest type of WBC and differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells in the tissues to phagocytose pathogens and present antigens to T cells.
91
Q

Rh Factor

A

Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on the surface of RBCs.

92
Q

Rh Positive (Rh+)

A

Means that the individual has the Rh antigen on their RBCs.

93
Q

Rh Negative (Rh-)

A

Means that the individual does not have the Rh antigen.

94
Q

Implications

A

incompatibility can cause problems in cases like blood transfusions or pregnancy. If an Rh- person is exposed to Rh+ blood, their immune system may develop antibodies against Rh+ RBCs, leading to a potential future reaction.

95
Q

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

A

It’s a condition that occurs when an Rh- mother is pregnant with an Rh+ fetus, and her immune system creates antibodies against the fetus’s RBCs, potentially causing severe fetal anemia.

96
Q

RhoGAM

A

RhoGAM is an injectable drug that prevents the immune system of Rh- mothers from producing antibodies against Rh+ fetal blood cells during pregnancy and after birth.

97
Q

WBC

A

B lymphocytes are the cells in the immune system that produce antibodies as part of the adaptive immune response.

98
Q

Describe Plasma

A

Plasma is the liquid, non-cellular part of blood that comprises about 55% of the blood’s volume. It is made up of 90% water, with the remainder consisting of proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

99
Q

Thrombus

A

blood clot that forms within a blood vessel or the heart and remains attached to its place of origin.

100
Q

Embolus

A

clot, air bubble, piece of fatty deposit, or other object that has been carried in the bloodstream to lodge in a vessel and cause an embolism (obstruction).

Anatomy (2 decks)

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