Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
A
- Compliments follicle stimulating hormone and assists with estrogen secretion
- Causes rupture of the follicle during menstruation
- Causes production of testosterone in men
2
Q
Timing of Protein Consumption
A
- Protein after our workout is important
- Have protein coming in within hours of when we have done resistance training and keep the protein coming in for 24 hours after that workout
- Amino acids in the protein we are eating stimulate protein synthesis for 1-2 hours
- > protein synthesis can last for up to 24 hours post-workout
- It is best if you get multiple smaller sources of protein rather than just one large one throughout the day
- There is a “Window of Opportunity”
- > If you intake some proteins just before you start working out that protein is available after you are done working out
3
Q
What Neural Adaptations can occur that will allow stronger muscle contractions?
A
- Motor Unit Recruitment
- Frequency of stimulation
- Neural Drive
- Synchronization of Motor Units
- Removal of Neural Inhibition
- Reduction of Coactivation
4
Q
Temperatures as an Environmental Stressor Effect on Exercise
A
- Either temperature extreme, either too hot or too cold can affect the body during exercise
- extreme high or low temperatures could be life threatening, or detrimental
5
Q
Exercise affect on FSH and LH
A
- Exercise depresses release of FSH and LH
- In comparison to sedentary men, an endurance athlete will have 60% of their testosterone level
- > Long distance runners do not have a lot of muscle mass
- In women, it increase menstrual dysfunction
6
Q
Exercise Effects on the immune system with Moderate activity (conversational exercise)
A
- Boosts the immune system and these positive effects can last for hours after you are done exercising
- More functional immune cells in the body are created to prevent us from getting ill
7
Q
Resistance Training Mechanism: Number of cross-bridges within the muscle
A
- Muscles are composites of muscle fibers and the size of the muscle is dependent on the size of the individual muscles
- > See how many additional cross-bridges have been added when looking at strength
- Force depends on the number of cross-bridges
- > Increase in the number of cross-bridges, increases the ability to generate force
8
Q
What two organs in the body produce steroid hormones?
A
- Cortex of the adrenal gland
- adrenocorticosteroids
- cortisol and aldosterone
- > secreted by the adrenal cortex - Gonads
- reproductive hormones
- testosterone
- > secreted by testes
- estrogen and progesterone
- > secreted by the ovaries and placenta
9
Q
What can a cell do to change itself and for muscle fiber hypertrophy to occur?
A
- Cell responds to stress and stimuli by activating DNA to produce new proteins
- Muscle hypertrophy is due to synthesis and accumulation of proteins
- Protein synthesis increases 3-5x after exercise
- > This can last for up to 24 hours post-workout
10
Q
Fiber Hyperplasia: Non-Human Tests
A
- Shows that muscle fibers are capable of splitting
- A muscle fiber was initially a number of smaller cells that fused together, so it is easy to understand the potential of these muscle fibers to be able to split and form new fibers
- Saw an increase of muscle mass in rats from a biopsy which showed us that the increase is due to fiber hyperplasia
11
Q
Atrophy
A
- As soon as you stop training, detraining occurs and you lose the training adaptations you have made
- Does not mean you have to train at the same level all the time, you can switch to a maintenance type workout
- With resistance training, reduce frequency, but maintain the intensity
- > Use the same weight, but reduce the number of times you workout
- Atrophy can also occur with someone who had a stroke
- > If they lose a function of one part of the body muscle atrophy can occur
- > Passive exercise is important for rehabilitation
- –> trainer will move the arm for a person with weight
12
Q
Body Layering Guidelines in Cold weather
A
- Base Layer
- Wicking fabric
- Pull moisture away from the skin
- > Don’t want it near skin where we would have evaporative cooling
- Not cotton, use a manmade fabric
- > nothing natural - Mid Layer
- Insulative layer
- Should be insulative and wicking
- Heavier than the base layer
- Only need the mid-layer in very cold conditions
- Should be loose, not a compression fabric
- > The tighter something is the colder it gets - Outer Layer
- Protective layer from wind and water
- Lightweight, waterproof fabric that is still breathable
- > Well ventilated
- Prevents moisture from getting in, but allows body moisture to get out
13
Q
Resistance Training Mechanisms to Increase strength
A
- Hypertrophy
- Number of cross-bridges within the muscle
- Amount of protein
- Neural Adaptations
14
Q
What to Wear to Combat High Temperatures to Still Be Active?
A
- It does not prevent the effects of heat, just reduces the risks associated with heat
- goal is to promote evaporative cooling and heat gain
1. Minimize the amount of clothing you are wearing to workout - By doing this, you are increasing the amount of your bodies surface area for evaporation
2. Wear lightweight and ventilated clothing - Ventilated clothing allows vaporization to continue to occur
- > just lightweight clothing stops and prevents vaporization
3. Wear moisture absorbing clothing such as cotton - cotton will absorb the moisture off the body and then evaporates off giving a cooling effect
4. Wear light colors - Color is the absorption of photon energy
- Black and dark colors absorb more photon energy than light colors
- White clothing transmits all of the sun’s radiation, so it is not absorbing as much
5. When you are done exercising do not be too quick to switch out of your wet exercise clothes because they are helping you cool down
15
Q
Psychological Component and Empowerment Component of One Rep Max
A
- Initial psychological component with lighter weight higher rep workout
- using lighter weights with more reps is seen as a less manly workout and vice versa for women - Empowerment Component
- For athletes in rehabilitation, lighter weight is less likely to cause an injury and allow that person to move that weight more times
- Can see the number of reps they are doing are increasing while on their workout program
16
Q
Long Term Effects of Exercise on Gonadocorticoids
A
- Long term effect of exercise
- > Hard to tell because these chemicals are made in much greater concentrations in other parts of the body
17
Q
Two ways that we see an increase in Strength
A
- It is due mostly to neural changes
- Initial changes in strength are due to neural activation of the muscle
- Neural changes explain the first 8-10 weeks of strength increases - Muscle Hypertrophy only comes into play after long term resistance training
- Takes time to alter protein production
- Hypertrophy starts after the 10th week and continues after time
18
Q
Fiber hypertrophy different resistant exercise effects
A
- Not all resistant exercise causes the same amount of hypertrophic response in muscle
1. Isometric Contractions - muscle contracts, but no change in muscle length
- no movement
2. Isotonic Contractions - muscle goes through a range of motion
3. Concentric Contractions - flexion
4. Eccentric Contractions - extension
19
Q
Concentric and Eccentric Contractions Effect on Fiber Hypertrophy
A
- Larger increase in the muscle cross-sectional area in eccentric contraction than from concentric contraction
- > more fiber hypertrophy from eccentric contractions
- Greater increase in hypertrophy from extension exercises over flexion exercises
- > When stretching a muscle under a load, it responds more with hypertrophy than when we are shortening the muscle with a load
- Most exercise can not be strictly eccentric, to have the eccentric part must do the concentric part in the first place
- > Combined exercises will show a greater increase in muscle mass than concentric, or eccentric alone
- You can enhance the hypertrophy coming from eccentric exercise by doing high velocity eccentric training
- > By high velocity eccentric training, the damage that occurs causes an increase in hypertrophy
20
Q
Neural Drive Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training
A
- Neural drive is a combination between motor unit recruitment and the rate of coding
- If you increase the number of motor units and increase the frequency, you can get much stronger contractions
- Increasing neural drive will increase strength
21
Q
Exercise Effects on Glucagon
A
- Basically opposite to insulin
- Glucagon levels increase with duration and exercise
- High levels of catecholamines will increase glucagon levels
- As we deplete glycogen reserves, we need more substrates available and glucagon powers things like gluconeogenesis
- Long Term Chronic Exercise Effects
- > Glucagon levels increase with duration and intensity, but increase less as a long term adaptation
22
Q
Types of Hormones
A
- four different classes of hormones
1. Steroid Hormones
2. Non-steroid hormones
23
Q
Aldosterone
A
- the predominant mineralocorticoid
- causes the resorption of sodium ions
- moves sodium and water follows
- Causes water retention related to blood volume, blood pressure and cardiac output
24
Q
Thyrotropin
A
- aka Thyroid stimulating Hormone (THS)
- Major hormone regulating activity of the thyroid gland
- Maintain growth and development of TG and activity of cells within TG
- TG regulates the body metabolism
25
Muscle Biopsy
- needle biopsy technique
- Technique used to determine the size, the number and the type of muscle fibers
- Indicates that when we are looking at changes in strength that there is very little increase in the size of fibers
- > there is a 50% increase in muscle fiber size
- > Shows that even though we see greater strength, the size of the fiber does not change much
26
Effects of Exercising in Polluted Air
- Number one urban problem for exercise is polluted air
- > More pollution in cities than in the country
- Affects the respiratory system
- > Causes a reduction in air flow in the respiratory system
- > Prevents oxygen from getting to the lungs and Carbon Dioxide from escaping
27
Adrenocorticosteroid Hormones
- come from the cortex of the adrenal gland
- steroid based hormones
- produced by the gonads and the adrenal cortex
1. Mineralocorticoids
2. Glucocorticoids
3. Gonadocorticoids
4. Gonadal Hormones
28
Prolactin Releasing peptide or Prolactin inhibiting factor
- Produces Prolactin and causes milk to be produced in the mammary glands
29
Resistance Training Mechanism: Amount of Protein
- More protein inside the muscle, contributes to muscle size and some can be myosin cross-bridge heads
- Amount of protein is related to size
30
Exercise Effects on Opioid Peptides
- Production of all of these increase with exercise
Ex: runner’s high
- can reduce mental depression, increase pain tolerance, control or suppress appetite (linked to obesity treatment)
- Reduce anxiety, reduce tension, reduce anger, reduce confusion
-> Balance the emotional states
- Research suggests that patient’s in the early stages of dementia can benefit from exercise
- reduce the release of FSH and LH
-> regulates the production of other hormones like testosterone and estrogen
-> has some effect on adrenocorticosteroids
- Stimulate the release of GH (growth hormone) and Prolactin
-> Exercise causes controlled tissue damage and growth hormone can stimulate that repair
- Opioid peptides help promote the recovery from exercise
31
Thyroid Gland Hormones
- Exercise increases thyroid activity
1. T3 and T4
- when secreted increase metabolic activity
- > increases the basal metabolic rate up to 4x normal rate
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- no effect on exercise because it is secreted at night during sleep
- > The production does not change, rather the secretion of TSH changes
- Active cells need energy and thyroid hormone makes that available
3. Produces calcitonin
- plays a role in reducing blood calcium levels
32
Major Air Pollutants
1. Ozone
- Reaction between sunlight and hydrocarbon emissions
- > Car exhaust
- Respiratory irritant
- Air Quality Index for Ozone
- > Can use this as a guide to determine the appropriate exercise condition
- > Reduce the intensity and duration of exercise when the index gets high
2. Carbon Monoxide
- Whenever you burn a fossil fuel we get carbon monoxide as a result
- Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin, even better than oxygen does
- > Prevents hemoglobin to bind to oxygen
- > can not get enough oxygen when exercising in cities with large amounts of carbon monoxide
- Carbon monoxide is slow to leave the body, it takes about 6 hours to start to leave the body
- A dose of Carbon monoxide can still be with you when you exercise for a second time and the effects are cumulative
33
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Posterior Pituitary Gland hormone
- involved with water retention in the kidneys
- promotes reabsorption of water by the kidneys
- decreases the concentration of urine
- exercise greatly increases ADH
- > shifts the blood to the surface and away from the kidney
34
High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)
- life threatening condition
- swelling around the brain
Symptoms:
- Headache
- Disorientation
- loss of coordination
- memory loss
- psychotic behavior
- coma
35
Heat Index and How to exercise based on it?
- Humidity makes a warm environment feel even warmer
- Heat Index is a mathematical combination of (the actual temperature outside) x (a relationship of the humidity)
- It is the temperature and humidity interacting with one another to give us a real feel
- > It is possible for temperature and humidity to interact so that it actually feels cooler outside than the actual temperature
- > Normally with the heat index you will see an increase in the real feel temperature
- generally the higher the temperature, the more we have to reduce the exercise intensity
36
Hypothermia
- After being extremely cold, you will start to feel warm and comfortable. Then you get sleepy and never wake up
- Can begin at external temperatures below 60’F
- You start shivering when your core body temperature is below 95’F
- can be life threatening
- It can occur very quickly especially when you are swimming
- > Because if you are moving around in the water, the water can take even more heat than just air
37
Non-Steroid Hormones
- protein, peptides and amines
- all are amino acid based
- derived from amine groups, or protein derived
- the amino acid chain length differentiates the hormones
- > short chain are peptides
- > long chain are proteins
- not fat/lipid soluble, they are water soluble
- > water soluble molecules can not pass through plasma or nuclear membranes
- > transported in the bloodstream much more efficiently
- > dissolved in plasma
- bind to receptors on the outside of the cell
- > extracellular
- requires a secondary messenger protein to activate the cell to carry out the function
- generally activate proteins that already exist inside cells
38
Category 1-4 of the Heat Index and General Effect of Heat Index on People in Higher Risk Groups
1. Category 1
- Heat index = 130'F or higher
- heatstroke or sunstroke is highly likely with continued exposure
- > pretty likely you will drop
2. Category 2
- Heat index = 105'F to 130'F
- Sunstroke, heat cramps, or heat exhaustion is likely
- heatstroke is possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity
3. Category 3
- Heat index = 90'F to 105'F
- Sunstroke, heat cramps, and heat exhaustion is possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity
4. Category 4
- Heat index = below 90'F
- Fatigue is possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity
- > will fatigue faster
39
Mechanism of Heat Exchange: Evaporation
- The major mechanism of heat exchange during exercise
- We cool down by putting this liquid on our body surface and having that liquid evaporate off
- > Whenever a liquid converts to a gas it vaporizes and because of the heat of vaporization (the conversion of one state of matter to another state of matter) there is energy that is lost
40
Exercise affect on Thyrotropin
- Exercise is going to increase the thyroid gland activity, but it is not seen consistently
- > Reason why is bc TG is most active during sleep
- Also because the thyroid gland is the only endocrine gland that can store its secretions
41
Calcitonin
- Thyroid Hormone
- plays a role in reducing blood calcium levels
- Not a major hormone in regulating blood levels
- More active in children than it is adults
- Adults have less calcitonin that affects blood concentration
- There is no effect from exercise
42
Diet Effects on Fiber Hypertropy
- Diet can either enhance or limit hypertrophy
- If a diet is poor in protein, we will limit the ability of an exercise regime to cause an increase in strength
- > Want to have a positive protein balance, more protein coming in that is being used by the body
43
Growth Hormone RH
- Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormone
- activates the somatotropes to release growth hormone
- Affects muscle and bone growth
- causes the production of growth hormone which promotes cell division and proliferation, aka produce more cells
- Slows the breakdown of carbohydrates and initiates the metabolism of fats
- > switch from one energy source to another
- > more energy in fats than carbs
44
How do hormones stimulate protein synthesis?
- specifically steroid hormones
- once a steroid receptor complex is made, it will become a promoter and activate a segment of DNA that causes transcription
1. Causes the production of mRNA
2. Leads to cell translation to a protein
3. A new protein is produced
- protein synthesis occurs
45
Hormone Actions
1. Stimulate protein synthesis
- especially steroid hormones
2. Change the rate of enzyme activity
3. Alter plasma membrane transport
- primarily through secondary messengers
- changes the excitability of the cell
4. Induce secretory activity
- one hormone causes the production of another hormone
46
Mechanism of Heat Exchange: Convection
- Movement of wind helps to increase the rate of heat exchange
- The movement of either air or water will speed up the exchange of heat
Ex: If we are outside on a cold day, we are losing heat to the environment and if the wind is blowing we are losing even more heat to the environment
- Generally talking about wind currents, but can also have convective loss or gain of heat to the movement of water
Ex: If we are swimming in cooler water, then we have greater convective loss of heat from our body to the water because the water is moving past us
47
High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)
- life threatening condition
- swelling around the lungs
Symptoms:
- chest tightness
- persistent cough
- frothy sputum
- feeling of impending suffocation during sleep
48
Importance of wearing scarves in cold temperatures when exercising
- Protects the neck
- You can also pull it up over your nose and mouth which allows the air to become warm before you breathe it in to your body
49
Steroid Hormones
- derived from cholesterol
- lipid in nature and fat soluble
- > can pass across a plasma or nucleus membrane
- bind to receptors inside the cells
- > intracellular receptors
- activate DNA
50
Gonadocorticoids
- Adrenal cortex produces this
- Predominant gonadocorticoid is DHEA which is a precursor for androgens
- > One version is testosterone and estrogen/estradiol
- > DHEA produce the sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen)
- Both men and women are producing both testosterone and estrogen
- > Both chemicals are linked to athletic type things
- exercise has no effect on androgens
51
Effect of Exercise on Glucocorticoids
- Exercise causes an increase in Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus which causes an increase in Adrenocorticotropic Releasing Hormone (ACTH) released by anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal cortex
- > Does not stimulate all 3 zones equally
- > Predominantly affects the zona fasciculata and that's where glucocorticoids are being produced
- Exercise causes inc in CRH and ACTH which increases cortisol
- Chronic training reduces the amount of cortisol that is produced from exercise
- Long term effect of exercise is to reduce glucocorticoids, but has no effect on mineralocorticoids
52
Mechanism of Heat Exchange: Radiation
- Heat moves from hot to cold
- Generally our body is warmer than the environment
- Our body temperature is 37’C
- > Therefore, generally we give off heat to the environment
- If the environmental temperature goes above 37’C aka a hot summer day, instead of our body giving off heat our body takes on heat from the environment
- > On hot days heat moves towards us
- Because our body is so hot, we generally have more of a stress with colder weather trying to allow us to stay warm than we do in warm weather to keep us cool
53
Opioids
- Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormone
- Naturally produced
- Opioid peptides
54
Exercise Effects on the immune system with Short term unusually strenuous exercise
- Suppresses the immune system
- Commonly causes an repeated long term chronic upper respiratory tract infection (URTI)
- Indicator that someone is overtraining
55
Body response during exercise due to increased temperature and humidity
1. Body temperature increases more dramatically the higher the temperature and the higher the humidity
- > Can not cool back down
- > This effect is exaggerated with humidity
2. The higher the body temperature, the higher the HR gets with the same amount of exercise
- > As our body temperature increases from exercise, so does our heart rate
- A combination of high temperature and high humidity causes an even greater increase in our HR
- > so we have to adjust our exercise to stay within our target range
56
Adrenal Gland Hormones
- The adrenal cortex responds to stress, aka exercise
- Catecholamines increase which increase HR and constricts blood vessels
- > epinephrine and norepinephrine
- Different parts of the adrenal gland produces different classes of hormones
- > Adrenocorticosteroid Hormones
57
Resistance Training Mechanism: Hypertrophy
- Resistance training gives visibly larger muscles
- Muscle Size and strength are highly correlated with one another
- Increasing muscle mass leads to increased strength
58
How can supplementation help if exercise is suppressing the immune system?
1. Type of diet being consumed makes a difference
- High fat diets suppress the immune system
- High carb diets increase immune system
- > Reduce fat and increase carb to reverse exercise immune system depression effects
2. Antioxidant vitamins
- If a person is on supplements the presence of those supplements prevent the immune suppression
- Vitamins C and E
- > Dosage varies
- > Daily intake of Vitamin C (fruits) is 600 mg
- > Daily intake of Vitamin E (fish) is 200 mg
- > Immune system will not be suppressed by exercise if consumed
- Best form of supplementation is through the diet
3. Glutamine
- amino acid
- presence of this amino acid in the body enhances immune activity
59
Methods to Avoid Peak Times of Air Pollutants
1. Avoid peak times
- 11am to 3pm ozone levels are high because the sun is high
- 5pm to 6pm carbon monoxide levels are high because of people coming home from work
- 7am to 8am carbon monoxide levels are high because people going to work
- To avoid these high levels, want to exercise after 8am and before 11pm, or between 3pm and 5pm
2. Avoid areas where traffic is not moving
- Carbon monoxide levels are higher in slower traffic than in moving traffic
- In a traffic Jam there is a three-fold increase in levels because the traffic is not moving
To avoid alter path to stay away from where stopped traffic is
60
Transient Hypertrophy
- Resistance training causes a short term (few hours) increase in the size of muscle, not lasting
- Due to localized edema (swelling) fluid accumulation after exercise
- An exercise response after a single session
EX: After weight training muscles are temporarily a little bit bigger before you started
61
Acute and Chronic Exercise Effects on Mineralocorticoids
1. Acute Exercise
- Increase in aldosterone production because stress activates the adrenal cortex
- > Increases cardiac output and maintains blood volume
- Increases mineralocorticoid production
2. Chronic Exercise
- Long term effect is that there is no affect
- > No training adaptation with aldosterone production
- Aldosterone regulates blood volume and we want a homeostatic blood volume and training does not change that, so no long term change
62
How do hormones stimulate protein synthesis?
- specifically steroid hormones
- once a steroid receptor complex is made, it will become a promoter and activate a segment of DNA that causes transcription
1. Causes the production of mRNA
2. Leads to cell translation to a protein
3. A new protein is produced
63
What is Fiber Hypertrophy mainly due to?
- protein production
| - 95% of muscle mass increase is primarily due to protein synthesis
64
Mechanism of amino acid transfer in proteins: How do we get protein production to make myofibrils?
- The enzyme mTOR, aka the Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin
- > It is involved in the protein synthesis for myofibrils
- How is mTOR activated?
1. It is activated by muscle stretch
- Therefore, Eccentric exercise activates mTOR
2. It is also activated by leucine
3. The presence of proteins, or amino acids will activate mTOR
- > One of the greater amino acids that does this is leucine
- Combining the muscle stretch with the presence of leucine will activate the production of new proteins
- Activating mTOR prompts the production of insulin
- > One of the effects of insulin is for anabolic protein synthesis
65
Mechanisms of Fiber Hypertrophy
- Most muscle fibers are determined shortly after birth
- There can be an increase in the number of muscle fibers
- > Fiber Hyperplasia
- > More research needs to be conducted because we do not know how this occurs exactly
- > there has been human and non-human tests conducted to see how this occurs
- Size of an existing individual fiber is fiber hypertrophy
1. More myofibrils
2. Increase in the number of myofilaments
3. Increase in sarcoplasm
- > cytoplasm of the muscle cell
4. Increase in connective tissue
5. Any cellular component could be the part that is increasing to cause an increase in the size
6. Really it is due to the increase in proteins
66
Exercise Effects of Insulin
- Insulin levels decrease with duration of exercise
- > Less sugar in the blood because it is being used up
- Insulin levels decrease with increased intensity levels of exercise as well
- > Glucose is used up and shift over to fats to get more energy
- Insulin is shut off due to Catecholamine suppression
- > nervous system is going to suppress the pancreas producing insulin
- Exercise increase catecholamine levels and shut off production of insulin and switch to fats
- Long Term Chronic Exercise Effects
- > Insulin decreases with duration and intensity of exercise, but as we train longer and longer we produce even less insulin
67
Dehydration Due to Exercising in High heats
- The loss of body fluids is the most critical factor when exercising at elevated temperatures
- The loss of fluids is linked to decreasing blood volume
- > Blood volume is linked to blood pressure and the ability to circulate and since we are circulating the oxygen that is needed by the muscles to stay active this the loss of fluid is important
- There are guidelines that have been established when you are working out in a warm environment that is related to the fluids you must consume
- > If you do not start consuming fluids until once you started exercising you are already at a loss/deficit
- Therefore, if you are going to exercise at high temperatures you need to start drinking before you start exercising
- People lose weight from exercising in high temperatures and it is due to water loss
- > the percentage of body weight loss can have ill effects if you lose too much water
68
Endocrine Response System
- regulates bodily functions through the use of chemicals, aka hormones
69
Intensity of Training for One Rep Max
- Originally believed that the intensity of training needed to be greater than or equal to 60% of 1 RM to get an increase in muscle size, aka a training adaptation of hypertrophy
- New research shows that you can exercise at an intensity less than or equal to 50% of 1 RM and get gain
- > If you are going at less than 60% you have to do whatever exercise you are performing until fatigue
- > If you are doing 60% or more you can do 10 reps and see gain
- > If you are going at 50% or less than that and perform that exercise until you are fatigued, you will see an increase in muscle mass and strength
- --> But you can not get as much gain as you can at 60% or more
- --> Benefit is you are less prone to injury working with lighter weights until fatigue
70
Chronic Hypertrophy
- Long term training adaptation
- Can result in one of three ways
1. Increase the size of existing muscle fibers
- Fiber hypertrophy
2. Increase the number of fibers
- Fiber hyperplasia
3. Combination of the first two things
- More fibers and bigger fibers
71
Heat Injuries
- Occur when the heat load is greater than the bodies ability to regulate its temperature
1. Heat Cramps
2. Heat Exhaustion
3. Heat Stroke
72
Four Mechanisms of Heat Exchange
- How heat is exchanged with the atmosphere
1. Simple Radiation
2. Conduction From Direct Contact
3. Convection With Air or Water Currents
4. Evaporation Of Sweat
73
Should you consume cool temperature water or warmer water in hot temperatures?
- Cool temperature water will help you stay cooler better than warmer water will, but it will also give you a stitch (side cramp) that will affect breathing
74
Windchill Index
- Temperature alone is not a good indicator of heat transfer
- Windchill Index is the perceived temperature that is a combination of (the actual temperature) x (the wind speed)
- Wind increases convective heat loss
- Shows us how long it takes to have frostbite
- > the actual death of tissue at these temperatures
75
Estrogen (estradiol) and Progesterone
- Function helping to regulate ovulation and menstruation
| - Involved in the physiological changes accompanying pregnancy
76
What is a protein source that is rich in leucine, easily digestible, readily available and rich in carbohydrates for most people?
- Chocolate milk
- One of the best post-exercise solutions
- Advantage is that it is cheaper
77
How does Exercise affect Growth Hormone
- If we increase short duration physical activity (anaerobic), we will get a spike increase in GH which affects muscle, bone and connective tissue
- switch from carbohydrates to fats
78
Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
- Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormone
- activates corticotrope cells which release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormones)
- ACTH affects the cortex of the adrenal gland
- Releases corticosteroids
79
Thyrotropin RH (TRH)
- Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormone
- affects the thyrotrope cells which release Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Targets the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones
80
Gonadotropin RH (GRH), or Gonadotropin Inhibiting Hormone (GnIH)
- Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormone
- targets the gonadotrope cells
- Produce LH and FSH
- Activates hormones from the testes and ovaries
- Produces testosterone (androgens) and estrogens, progestins
81
Synchronization of Motor Units Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training
- Synchronization of motor units is when motor units start firing together
- > Motor units are firing synchronously to give more force
- Results from repeated long term resistance training
- > Contractions are always becoming stronger
82
Glucocorticoids
- produced from the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex
- Effects energy substrates
- Effects the metabolism of glucose, proteins and fatty acids
- > Has to do with energetic pathways and what is available
- Predominant glucocorticoid is cortisol
- exercise increases this
83
Exercise Effect on Catecholamines
- exercise increases catecholamines and continues to increase post-exercise
- exercise above 50% VO2 max will increase levels during and after exercise
- > epinephrine and norepinephrine
84
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- initiates follicle growth in the ovary and involved in sperm development
- > Both sperm and egg production
- FSH in women stimulates the follicles to ripen and the follicles secrete estrogen
85
Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones
- both produces and releases tropic hormones
- cells can be stimulated by a releaser from the hypothalamus to signal cells to start producing
- absence of an inhibitor mechanism will also give us hormones
- Tropic Hormones released includes:
- > tropic hormone targets another endocrine gland
1. Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
2. Thyrotropin RH (TRH)
3. Gonadotropin RH (GRH), or Gonadotropin Inhibiting Hormone (GnIH)
4. Opioids
- Not Tropic Hormones
5. Prolactin
6. Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
86
Autogenic Inhibition Golgi Tendon Organ Example
- tendon is the muscle that connects the tissue to the bone
- When excessive stretch is detected in the connective tissue, the agonist is inhibited
- In Resistance Training it reduces those inhibitory impulses
1. We can have more stretch on the connective tissue
2. Reduced inhibitory method
3. Autogenic inhibition has not been activated
4. Independent of the mass of the muscle
5. Repeated workouts shut down inhibitory signal, thus causing an increase in the strength of contraction
- Muscle itself has not changed
87
Prolactin
- Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormone
- Initiates and supports milk secretion, not the release but the production
- Prolactin stimulates the mammary gland for secretion
- For men and women a high fat diet increases the prolactin release
- Prolactin affects milk production, therefore increased prolactin levels cause breast enlargement
88
Isometric Contractions Effect on Fiber Hypertrophy
- Muscle contracts, but there is no change in the length of the muscle
- No movement that happens
- can lead to increases in strength
-> Strength can be accompanied by hypertrophy, therefore isometric contractions can cause increase in muscle mass.
Ex: If weight was excessive, there is no way they can actually lift the weight.
-> Therefore, the muscle contracts but they do not move the weight at all.
89
Exercise Effect on the Immune response
- Exercise can suppress the immune system and lead to illness
- > Illness suppresses the immune system and makes us even more vulnerable to illness
- The type of exercise has different effects on the immune system
1. Short term unusually strenuous exercise
2. Moderate activity (conversational exercise)
3. Long term aerobic exercise
4. Long term resistance training
90
Hypothalamus: Anterior vs Posterior Pituitary Glands Involvement
- Hypothalamus-Pituitary Master Gland
- hypothalamus is a hormone releaser
- stimulates the anterior portion of the pituitary gland to start producing chemicals
- chemicals are stored in the posterior portion of the pituitary gland
91
Problems with Exercising at Higher Altitudes
1. The major concern when exercising at altitude is a loss of oxygen
- > Dalton's Law says that as we go up in elevation, barometric pressure decreases
- --> Less atmospheric pressure means less O2 pressure and less availability to exchange within our lungs
- --> Body responds to the loss of oxygen by breathing faster because you are getting less oxygen per breath
2. If we are breathing faster to try to get more oxygen, we want to be able to deliver that oxygen to the tissues that need it so our heart starts to beat faster
- Therefore, if you are exercising at a higher altitude you need to reduce the intensity of your exercise, or you will be way outside your target zone
- > Do not need to change the frequency or duration, only the intensity
3. Water vapor in the air is less than 1% of the atmospheric pressure
- > So as we go up in elevation there is a loss of moisture in the air and it is dryer
- >Therefore, fluid loss becomes an issue at elevation due to less water being in the air
- > Must increase fluid intake when exercising at increased elevation
- > The fluid loss is from when we exhale
92
Removal of Neural Inhibition Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training
- Muscles have built in stretch receptors, we never want to contract the muscle with so much force that we tear the muscle fibers or relax too much that it tears
- When stretch receptors are activated, it sends a neural signal that shuts off the neural impulse that activates the muscle fibers causing them to contract in the first place
- Neural inhibition that is a protective function for our muscles
- Skeletal muscles work in antagonistic pairs
- > they counteract each other as an agonist and antagonist
- Neural inhibition activates the antagonist to stop the contraction
- Autogenic Inhibition
- > self-generated
- > Inhibition of the muscle contraction
- > Muscle generates a stop because we don’t want to contract so far that the muscle, connective tissue, or bone tears
93
For Short vs Long Duration exercises what is the optimal fluid source to consume?
1. For short duration exercise, water is the optimal source to be taking in
- Drinking water beforehand
2. For longer duration exercise, or for higher intensity exercise adding electrolytes is important
- Gatorade
94
Importance of wearing gloves and socks in cold temperatures when exercising
- Generally as we start to get cold blood is diverted from the shell back to the core
- > Therefore, our extremities (the very tips of our arms and feet) have the lowest blood supply and are prone to frostbite
- By wearing gloves and insulating socks we can help prevent the frostbite
95
Body Adaptations to Exercising At Higher Altitudes
1. As you go up in altitude you start breathing faster because you are getting less oxygen per breath
2. If we are breathing faster to try to get more oxygen, we want to be able to deliver that oxygen to the tissues that need it so our heart starts to beat faster
3. Water vapor in the air is less than 1% of atm pressure
- Must increase fluid intake when exercising at increased elevation because there is less moisture in the air
4. Amount of hemoglobin increases at altitudes
- Partially due to the fluid loss and plasma loss
- Purpose is to allow the blood to carry more oxygen
- > Really were allowing the blood to carry the same amount of oxygen because there is less in the atmosphere
- > We circulate 1000 mL of oxygen per hemoglobin in the blood supply
5. In extremes aka high elevations for long periods of time
- Person has higher hemoglobin concentrations
- Can carry more oxygen, but only at extremes
96
Effects of Exercise on Type 2 Diabetes Patients
- Adult onset diabetes
- Regular exercise reduces the prevalence of diabetes, aka a positive suppression
- But there are also tremendous risks for engaging in exercise if have type 2 diabetes because people can be in different stages of the disease and it can cause harm
- If a person is generally exercising, they are less likely to get diabetes opposed to someone who is sedentary
- If start exercise program early with the disease, will slow down the disease
- Exercise can help prevent diabetes, slow the progression of diabetes, but will also have risks
97
Adaptations to Resistance Training
- Resistance training changes muscle power, or muscle endurance
- Strength comes very quickly within 3-6 months
- Can see a 25-100% increase in strength
- > overestimation
- Test this with a one rep max
- > most weight you can lift once
- Overestimation because gain is not simply due to an increase in strength, also due to learning aka the technique associated with resistance training
- > Part of the initial gain is simply learning how to do that type of lifting
98
Opioid Peptides
- Endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins and mesolimbic dopaminergic system
- > all secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
- Mood altering association related to these chemicals
99
How much protein should you consume post resistance training?
- You should ingest between 20-25 grams of protein immediately after a workout, the sooner the better
- > Within an hour of the workout
- Suggested rate of protein intake is 8/10ths of a gram of protein for every kilogram of body weight
- > for everyday people
- For resistance athletes, we want to double that
- > consume 1.6-1.7 grams of protein for every kilogram of body weight
- > If a protein source also has a source of carbohydrates with it that is even better
100
Endocrine system Activation Pathways
1. Neural Stimulation Pathway
- Stimulate endocrine glands by sending a nervous signal to the gland and that will activate it
2. Humoral Mechanism
- Gland is stimulated by the concentration of things in the bloodstream
3. Hormonal Mechanism
- A tropic Hormone stimulates another gland to produce another hormone
101
Best Sources of Protein Include
- not all protein is equal
- best proteins for post-resistance exercise is that protein is:
1. Easily Digested
2. Rapidly Digested
3. Rich in the amino acid leucine
- > Whey protein has all three of these
102
What does our body do to help us acclimate to warmer environments?
- acclimatization, or acclimation is a training adaptation
1. Increases plasma volume
- so we can sweat more
2. Increases the rate of sweating
3. Decreased threshold for initiation of sweating
- start sweating earlier
4. Increased maximum capacity of cutaneous vasodilation
- More capillaries bringing blood towards the shell so we can dissipate heat from the core
5. Decreased electrolyte content of sweat
6. Decreased heart rate at a given work load and stress
- HR will not increase as much
7. Increased aldosterone production with resulting decreased urinary sodium excretion and greater volume retention
- stress increases adrenocorticosteroid production, heat is a stressor
- Increase aldosterone production and get less urination
8. Lower core and skin temperature
- End result is that body temperature does not increase as much
103
Reduction of Coactivation Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training
- Movement is the result of the interaction between the agonist and the antagonist
- If both are equally activated, there is no motion/change
- In resistance training there is a reduction in co-activation
- > Reduce the signal being sent to the antagonist
104
Exercise affect on Prolactin
- High intensity level activity increases prolactin levels for both genders until about 45 minutes after exercise
- Prolactin levels have influences on reproductive hormones, therefore repeated high intensity exercise will inhibit ovarian function and alter menstrual cycles
- If women are fasting while working out there is a greater increase in the prolactin produced
- Long term training decreases resting levels of prolactin in men
105
Effects of Exercise on Cancer
- Regular exercise reduces the risk of certain types of cancers (4 types)
1. Breast Cancer
2. Choline cancer
3. Lung cancer
4. Prostate cancer
- exercise has no effects on other types of cancers
106
Effects of Exercising in the Heat
- Sweating is a body defense to help us cool down
- One effect of exercising in the heat is that it increases sweat production
- > As our body temperature starts to rise, we start to produce sweat that accumulates on the surface
- We are an endothermic animal
107
Frequency of Stimulation Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training
- Wave summation
-> Do not allow a muscle to completely relax before you stimulate it for a second time
- Each contraction gets successively a little larger until a max is reached (stronger contraction)
-> So change the rate at which signals are sent down the motor neuron
- Resistance training adaptation is for the brain to send more rapid signals to the muscle
-> Frequency of stimulation increases
- This type of training adaptation is really only seen in ballistic training
-> Ballistic Training is the rapid acceleration of weight into free space
Ex: kettlebell training (swing ball forward)
108
Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones
- releases, but does not produce hormones
| - releases Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormones (ADH)
109
Pancreatic Hormones
- Produces insulin and glucagon
- Linked to energy availability and blood glucose levels
1. Insulin
- increases the entry of glucose into cells
- > Cellular uptake of glucose
- Insulin reduces blood glucose levels
- >Takes glucose in the blood and allows cells to take that in
2. Glucagon
- Liberates glucose from storage
- Reserves of Glycogen are broken down
- > glucose is released into the bloodstream where it can travel and have an effect somewhere else
110
Motor Unit Recruitment Neural Adaptation to Resistance Training
- A motor unit is a single motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that are stimulated by that single neuron
- If we change the number of motor units that are recruited and that act during muscle contraction, we can change the number of fibers that are stimulated and therefore change the strength of contraction without changing anything about the muscle itself
- Training adaptation is to increase the number of motor units that fire which increases the force of contraction which increases strength
- One way to match motor units to the need is that we can have motor units fire asynchronously
- > Not having all of the motor units fire at the same time allows us to vary the strength of contraction
- > Allows us to switch from one motor unit to another to maintain a contraction for a longer unit of time
111
Effect of Humidity On Exercise
- Humidity prevents evaporative cooling
- > The moisture on the surface of our body can not evaporate off
- It is harder to cool on a humid day than it is on a dry day
112
Acute Mountain Sickness
- most common problem
- occurs whenever you are at an elevation greater than 8000 feet
- caused by going too high, too fast
- Mild or severe symptoms
- To treat this just go down in elevation
113
Resistance Training Mechanism: Neural Adaptation
- Changes that occur in the neuromuscular junction
- Resistance training changes the neural control of muscle
- > Adaptations within the neural component
- Without changing muscle size, we can get an increase in contraction strength by changing the neuromuscular junction
- > No structural change in the muscle itself
114
Mechanism of Heat Exchange: Conduction
- Heat transfer due to direct contact
- heat always moves from HOT TO COLD!
Ex: If we touch something hot the heat moves to us
Ex 2: If we are exercising on a hot asphalt we are in direct contact with that and the heat will be moving from hot to cold
-> from the hot asphalt to us
Ex 3: If we are exercising in the snow and we are in contact with the snow on the ground, the heat is moving from our hotter body onto the colder ground
115
Fiber Type Alterations with Resistance Training
- With resistance training, focus on glycolytic fibers instead of oxidative fibers
- > Both can cause a change in fiber type, but go in opposite directions
- > endurance training is mostly oxidative fibers
116
Mild and Severe Symptoms of Acute Mountain Sickness
1. Mild AMS
- sleep disturbances
- fatigue
- dizziness or light-headedness
- headache
- appetite changes
- nausea
- vomiting
- increased HR
- shortness of breath
2. Severe AMS
- gray, blue or pale skin
- tightness in the chest
- chest congestion
- withdrawal from others
- decreased consciousness
- confusion
- inability to walk straight
- shortness of breath at rest
117
Isontonic Contraction Effect on Fiber Hypertrophy
- When the muscle goes through a range of motion, muscle changes its shape.
- can lead to an increase in strength
118
Wearing a hat in cold temperatures during exercise
- lots of heat escapes through the head
- 37%, or ⅓ of the heat that is lost to the environment from cold is going to go through the head or neck
- > So a hat will help prevent heat loss
- The problem is because that is how our body thermoregulates, if our head is completely covered we can overheat
- Do not want to get too warm because if we get too warm we will start to sweat and if we start to sweat it is no longer insulating for us
119
What to Wear to Combat Cold Temperatures to Still Be Active?
- goal is to prevent heat loss
1. Layering
- Base Layer
- Mid-layer
- Outer Layer
2. Hat
3. Gloves and Socks
4. Scarf
120
Extreme Cold Temperatures as an Environmental Stressor Effect on Exercise
- When it is very cold, if we have to contract muscle for shivering just to keep us warm this takes away the ability for the muscle to do work
- > if we continue with hypothermia we can get into unconsciousness and death
121
Hormone-Target Cell Specificity
- hormones are transported throughout the entire body/bloodstream and can interact with any cell that has its specific receptor
- some cells have more receptors for more than one hormone
- combination of a hormone and its bound receptor is referred to as a hormone-receptor complex
122
Extreme Hot Temperatures as an Environmental Stressor Effect on Exercise
- As we exercise our body temperature increases, therefore if it is very hot outside our body temperature is going to increase even further
- > 109’F is the upper limit for survival
- > It can cause a heat stroke
- > can cause hyperthermia
123
At what temperature do we need to become concerned about it being a cold extreme?
- If we are working out in temperatures that are less than or equal to 60’F, we need to start conserving body heat
- As we start to lose our body temperature we will start to shiver, we will become incoherent, slip into unconsciousness, cardiac arrhythmias can occur and finally death
- Biggest problem exercising in the cold is hypothermia and frostbite
- Generally temperature drops as you move up in altitude
124
Gonadal Hormones
- Called the sex hormones because they are produced by the sex organs
- Hormones being produced by the sex hormones have a role that is completely unrelated to exercise, but instead a role that involves the development and maintenance of reproductive organs and gametes
1. Testosterone
2. Estrogen (estradiol) and Progesterone
125
Testosterone
- gonadal hormone
- Involved in the production of sperm and development of male secondary sex characteristics
- > Secondary Sex characteristics are related to things done athletically
- > Result in greater bone density, higher muscle mass, and lower fat mass
- It is an anabolic steroid hormone cause the production of polymers/proteins
- > Greater muscle density
126
Gonadotropins
- two hormones that affect the sex organs
-> affects the growth of the sex organs and secretions from the sex hormones
1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
2. Luteinizing Hormone
(LH)
127
Heat Stroke
- most severe heat injury
- A life threatening condition
- Do not treat this get medical attention!
- > While waiting attempt to lower their body temperature as quickly as possible
- A person will have stopped sweating
- > they will be pretty dry
- > Their skin is red and hot to the touch
- > Often they will be nauseous or vomiting already
- > HR is going to be very rapid
- > If their body temperature is above 106’F they will be having seizures
- High intensity workouts in high temperatures with a fluid deficit to begin with can cause heat stroke to occur very quickly
128
Testosterones influence on Protein Synthesis
- increases in testosterone can cause protein synthesis
- An increase in testosterone shows an increase in muscle mass for both men and women
- > It can be natural or synthetic testosterone
- anabolic steroids are synthetic testosterone
129
Exercise effects on Gonadal Hormones
- Effects of exercise causes an increased production of sex hormones
- > Exercise increases all of these hormones in both men and women
- Training adaptation is to increase testosterone due to the anabolic nature
- > Can heal tissue and help with repairs
- Inc in estrogen and progesterone is due to the relationships of these two chemicals with substrate metabolism, or energy pathways
130
Pituitary Gland Hormones Characteristics
- anterior and posterior pituitary glands
- > all hormones released are non-steroid hormones that are peptide, or amino acid based
1. Posterior Pituitary Gland
- extension of the brain
- > neural tissue
- releases hormones
- does not produce hormones
2. Anterior Pituitary Gland
- derived from the oral cavity
- > secretory tissue
- produces and releases 4 tropic hormones
- produces and releases 2 non-tropic hormones
131
Fluid Intake Guidelines in Hot temperatures to Prevent Dehydration
- prevention is the best option because it is easier to prevent than it is to recover
- Thirst lags behind fluid deficit
- > by following guidelines preventing any deficit occurring
1. Drink 17-20 ounces of water 2-3 hours before you start exercising
2. Drink 8 ounces of water 20-30 minutes before you start exercising, or during your warm up
3. Drink 7-10 ounces of water for every 10-20 minutes during exercise
4. Drink 8 ounces of water no more than 30 minutes after you exercise
132
Oxytocin
- Posterior Pituitary Gland hormone
- promotes smooth muscle contraction
- It has the biggest function with women in labor
- > promotes contractions of the uterus to get the baby out
- Involved in the ejection of milk
- Also called the “the cuddle hormone” because after sex and birth it forms a tight bonding socialization
- exercise has no effect on oxytocin
133
Two ways that Muscle hypertrophy occurs
- How muscles can get bigger
- Size can change in two ways
1. Transient Hypertrophy
2. Chronic Hypertrophy
134
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
- major regulation of calcium levels in the blood
- increases osteopathic activity
- > muscle contraction requires calcium
- exercise increases PTH
- > both for involuntary and voluntary contractions
135
Mineralocorticoids
- produced from the zona glomerulus
- linked to maintaining the salt balance in our body
- > predominantly the sodium balance
- > maintains the fluid balance in the body as a result
- causes us to retain water
- predominant mineralocorticoid is aldosterone
- increases with exercise
136
What are the effects of pouring water on ourselves while exercising in hot temperatures?
- Sweating helps us cool down by evaporative cooling
- Pouring water over our body helps us cool down the same way
- > Water will evaporate off and have a cooling effect
137
Heat Cramps
- Muscle spasms
- More common and lesser severity
- Muscles start to cramp up
- Remedy is to move to a cool place, usually lie down and drink electrolytes
- > Because they were caused by heat massaging them will not make them go away
138
Heat Exhaustion
- More severe than heat cramps
- Weakness and fatigue
- Reduction in blood pressure occurs
- Person will be profusely sweating with pale and clammy skin
- Treat this by moving to a cool place, cool down with cold water or ice and have some electrolytes
- > drink ice or cover body in it
139
What does a person need to do to cause fiber hyperplasia?
- Very high intensity resistance training
- Greater than 90% of 1 RM
- Very high amounts of weight for a person in attempts to only get 5-10% increase in muscle mass and strength
140
Exercise affect on Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Exercise increases ACTH production during the physical activity
- Adrenal gland increases its activity which increases ACTH
141
Fiber Hyperplasia: Human Tests
- Found that there is the potential for fiber splitting (increasing the number of fibers), but they can only see an increase in muscle mass of about 5-10%
- Part of strength can be due to hyperplasia, but most increases of strength is due to hypertrophy
142
Exercise Effect on the immune system with Long Term Aerobic Exercise and Long Term Resistance Training
1. Long Term Aerobic Exercise
- Boosts the immune system and lasts long term
2. Long Term Resistance Training
- Either does not affect immune system at all, or depresses it
- Depends on the intensity of the exercise
143
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Regulates the cortex of the adrenal gland
- Increase free fatty acid metabolism
- Break down adipose tissue to give us fatty acids
- Increase gluconeogenesis
- > Makes more glucose
- Increase protein metabolism
- > Break them down
144
Define One Rep Max (1 RM)
- What is the maximum amount of weight that you can move one time
- Can use this as a training guideline to help us determine how we need to be training
- One Rep Max is easier to determine than VO2 Max without causing potential for heart attacks
