Exam 3 Flashcards
Ainsworth Attachment theory: secure attachment.
Secure attachment: most infants are in this category.
Child often distressed when caregiver leaves the room.
Child often happy to see caregiver return to the room.
at age 2, rates vary by SES
Insecure/ Ambivalent Attachment.
Child is clingy from beginning of the strange situation.
Child very upset when caregiver leaves the room.
When caregiver returns, child rushes to her and establishes physical contact –then squirms to get down
Ainsworth: Insecure/ Avoidant Attachment:
Child avoids caregiver during the strange situation
fails to greet caregiver during reunion phase
ignores caregiver or turns away when caregiver is in the room.
Ainsworth: Disorganized attachment:
Lack of consistency in coping style during SS
Bx appear confused contradictory, or disoriented.
Child wants to approach caregiver, but sees them as source of fear to withdraw from as well.
Secure base
Presence of a consistent caregiver provides sense of security
caregiver provide:
- source of safety when feeling insecure
- Comfort & Pleasure
- Opportunity to explore environment.
- Experiences for gathering knowledge & developing general competence.
Parental sensitivity:
consistent response when child is upset
Consistent engagement in coordinated play.
Parental sensitivity in insecure/ambivalent attached children:
Caregivers often inconsistent in their responses
caregivers often anxious & overwhelmed.
Parental sensitivity and Insecure/ Avoidant Attachment
caregivers often indifferent & unemotional
sometimes reject infant attempts at closeness
Parental sensitivity and Disorganized attachment:
Caregivers may be abusive, frightening, disoriented
Caregiver may have unresolved trauma or loss
Effects of attachment style:
Secure attachment in children:
- Better adjusted socially
- More social skills
- Stronger peer relationships
- more attentive in school
Experiencing sensitive parenting:
- more likely to express emotions
- Better emotional communication
the self at 2-5 months:
Recognize that they can control objects
Being able to understand their own bodily movements
the self at 8-12 months
realize they are separate entity from caregiver
begin to engage in joint attention to objects
the self at 18-20 months
children can recognize themselves in a mirror
the self at 24 months
children can recognize themselves in photographs.
the self at 2-3 years
Exhibit embarrassment & shame
Establish goals & activities independent of adults
Begin labeling objects with their name and using personal pronouns
parental contributions:
- describe child – “you’re such a big boy!”
- Evaluate child–“you’re working so hard!”
the self at 3-5 years
Sense of self defined by concrete observables
physical attributes
activities
social relationships
Psychological traits
preferences / possessions
the self in middle childhood
social comparison to others
other’s opinions increasingly important to sense of self
forming higher-order concepts of self that integrate specific Bx
the self in early to late teens
sense of self in abstract concepts
EX: introvert/extrovert
Social competence & acceptance very important in this stage
Self may very with context
in middle teens:
-concerns over contradictions in self in different situations
-beginning to ask, “ who am I?”
in late teens:
-better integration & resolution of contradictions in sense of self
- less reliance on others’ opinions
- internalized model of personal values, beliefs and standards
personal fable:
Form of egocentrism characterizing self in early adolescence
Belief that one;s thought and feelings are unique
Contributes to high degree of concern with what others think of them
gain an imaginary audience (omg everyone is looking at me)
identity achievement:
Successful incorporation of various aspects of self into a coherent whole that is stable.
Eriksons Theory Identity-diffusion status;
one does not have firm commitments regrading identity & is making progress toward developing them.
People in this:
- Lacking in intimate peer relationships
- More apathetic
- At risk for drug abuse
Eriksons theory of Foreclosure status:
No identity has occurred & occupational/ ideological beliefs are based on others
People in this:
- More likely to b=obey authority
- More likely to rely on others to make important life decisions
- Difficulty drawing meaning from life events
Erikson’s theory for Moratorium Status:
one is exploring occupational & ideological choices but has not yet made a commitment.
People in this:
- higher anxiety levels
- relatively unhappy
- Less likely to obey authority
- Often engage in risky sexual and drug behavior.
Erikson’s Theory of identity achievement status:
One has achieved a coherent & consolidated identity based on personal decisions & they are committed to those decisions
People who reach this:
- more socially mature
- Higher motivation for achievement
- More involved in their careers
Factors of Identity formation:
Parents;
- Overprotective–> foreclosed identity
- Encourage sense of connection & autonomy –> explore & achieve identity
Child’s Bx
-Activities & interests influence peers and what is learned from the environment
Social contexts
- Career exposure, role models, school quality, financial options, etc.
Historical Context
Opportunity for identity options can change over time (e.g. women Lib. Movement)
five factors in ethnic identity in childhood:
- Ethnic Knowledge:
- Knowledge that their ethnic group has distinguishing behaviours. traits, values, customs, styles & languages
- Ethnic self-identification
- Categorization of themselves as a member of their ethnic group
- Ethnic constancy:
- Understanding the distinguishing characteristics of their ethnic group do not change across time and that they will always be a member of their ethnic group
- Ethnic-role Bx:
- Engagement in the behaviours that reflect the distinguishing characteristics of their ethnic group
- Ethnic feelings & preferences
- Feelings about belonging to their ethnic group and preferences for the distinguishing characteristics of the group and its members
factors that influence self esteem:
Genetic inheritance
Quality of relationships,
Personal appearance & competence
School & neighborhood
cultural factors
Approval & support from relationships with others (less about approval over time)
Freuds Psychosexual Development:
Theory that even young children have a sexual nature that motivates behavior and influences relationships.
Freuds stages of Psychosocial Developement:
Oral stage Anal stage Phallic stage Latency stage Genital stage
oral stage from birth to year 2:
primary source of pleasure is oral activity of eating
breast feeding leads to all other acts of sucking also bringing pleasure
Mother becomes source of intense love & security
Anal stage year 2-3:
Child begins to be able to control bodily processes
pleasure in ability to relieve tension associated with defecation
Conflict arises with parental demands on bowel control
with time, additional demands placed on child to control impulses and delay gratification
contribute to the development of the EGO
Phallic stage year 3-6:
Children become interested in their own genitalia, as well as that of parents & peers
Children identify with their same-sex parent
children experience intense sexual desires
efforts to resolve desires with rules & guidelines develops the Superego
Latency period (year 6-12) :
Relatively calm stage
Sexual desires repressed to unconscious level
Psychic energy focused on constructive development of intelligence & social interactions
Genital Stage (begins with puberty)
Sexual energy that has been calm reasserts itself and directed toward opposite-sex peers
Ideally: strong ego helps cope with reality and superego is neither too weak or strong
what is healthy development according to freud?
ability ti invest in and find pleasure in love and work
if the needs of any stage are not met, individual becomes fixated on that need
how a child passes through the 5 stages impacts their personality throughout life
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: basic trust vs Mistrust
Basic trust vs. Mistrust (1st year
- corresponds to oral stage
- Warm, consistent & reliable care-giving develops infants sense of trust
- infant feels good & reassured.
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3.5 years)
corresponds to anal stage
develop sense of self within construct of society
childs faculties develop, want to make decisions
supportive environment develops autonomy
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6 years)
Children identify with and learn from their parents
child learns to set goals and work towards them
development of conscience
realistic goals & punishment = development of high standards and initiative
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Industry vs. Inferiority (6- puberty)
Corresponds with latency period
crucial for ego development – mastery of skills
-learn to work hard & cooperate with peers
Success in this stage = sense of competency
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Identity vs. Role confusion (adolescence to adulthood)
Critical period for establishing sense of identity
physical & mental changes
Important decisions about education and occupation
Requires figuring out who you are, or live in confusion about who you are as an adult
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Intimacy vs. Isolation (age 19-40)
Formation of intimate, loving relationships
faliure –loneliness & isolation
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Generativity vs. Stagnation:
Need to create & nurture that which will outlast self
success –sense of usefulness; accomplishment
failiure – shallow investment in the world
erikson’s theory on Psychosocial development: Ego integrity vs. Despair (age 65-death)
reflects on life with sense of fulfillment
success – sense of wisdom
Failure – regret ; bitterness ; despair
issues with psychoanylitic theories:
major theoretical claims are too vague to be tested
many of the specific elements have been regarded as highly questionable
yet, highly important historically and influential on current psychological theories
learning theories
Based on ideas from empiricist philosopher John Locke
-Experience shapes the human mind
Leaning from experience is the primary developmental factor
-Nurture trumps nature
Rewards, punishments, cognition, & child all play a role
Grounded in empirical research, therefore theoretical predictions
-contributing to parents practices
Behaviorism (John Watson):
Development determined by the social environment
learning occurs through classical conditioning
_groundwork for therapeutic deconditioning techniques
_systematic desensitization : positive responses paired with fears stimuli
Believed that parents were responsible for guiding child development (via conditioning)
Operant Conditioning BF Skinner:
Behaviour is under environmental control
Individuals repeat behaviours that received favorable responses (reinforcement)
-Individuals don’t repeat behaviours with unfavorable responses (punishment)
Children act to “get attention
-BF skinner invented the idea of time out
Intermittent (inconsistant) reinforcement:
Behavior gets positive response only sometimes
makes it more difficult to extinguish a behaviour – child continues Bx because it MIGHT get a reward
Social learning theory:
Child observation and imitation serve as keys to development
- reinforcements can increase chance of imitation, but not necessary for leaning - children play more of an active role in their own development
Observational Learning:
- Attention to others Bx
- Encoding the observed Bx
- Storing the encoding information
- Retrieving information at later point
Reciprocal Determinism:
child environment influences operate bidirectionally
- Children see out interactions with their environment
- the outcomes of these interactions influence interactions the child seeks out in the future.
perceived self efficacy:
beliefs one has about how effectively they can control their own Bx, thoughts, & emotions toward a goal`
Medial prefrontal cortext is still:
developing during adolescence to full adulthood.
the gradient from self to other:
Less like you… more posterior and more like you, more anterior
Role taking:
Ability to adopt another’s perspective
allows for better understanding of another thoughts, feelings, motives
Stage Theory of Role-Taking , stage 1
Appreciation that someone can have a perspective different from your own
assume due to other possessing different information
age 6-8
Stage Theory of Role-Taking , stage 2
realize different viewpoints & able to think about the other p.o.v.
age 8-10
Stage Theory of Role-Taking , stage 3
can compare own viewpoint with p.o.v. of another person
can take perspective of 3rd party and assess differences
age 10-12
Stage Theory of Role-Taking, stage 4
Attempt to understand others by comparing their view to “most people”
age 12+
Hostile attribution bias
Assumption by some children that actions of others are generally hostile towards them
even if action was ambiguous
Leads some to search for hostility & assume peer was trying to harm them
Often results in retaliation because seen as appropriate response
Ethology:
Study of Bx within an evolutionary context
-Understanding Bx in terms of adaptive or survival value
Early preference for mothers voice
-Influence attention, attachment etc.
Play preferences in boy/girls
- Girls predisposed toward social interactions
- Boys towards nonsocial stimuli
Evolutionary Psychology:
Applies concept of natural selection & adaptation to human Bx contributed to survival.
- Adaptations became more common & passed down
- Much of our Bx shaped by our evolutionary history
Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model:
Most encompassing model if general context of development
Environment is a set of nested levels, each with an influence on development
-exact nature of influence varies across developmental stage.
levels: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, chronosystem
Microsystem:
Innermost layer
activities, roles and relationships the child participates in directly
- Family is a crucial component– especially early childhood
- Becomes more complex with age (peer, teachers, etc.)
Influences are bidirectional
- Marriage can affect how parents treat their children
- Child’s Bx can impact marital relationship
Mesosystem
Connections among microsystems
-Between family, peers, school, groups
Supportive connections – Beneficial
nonsuportive connections – negative outcomes
Exosystem:
Broad settings that can influence development
- child may not ne direct part of but still plays a role
- Ex : parents workplace
- Enjoyment of work affects parental emotional state
- Finnancial success of employer affects job security
Macrosystem
general beliefs, values, customs, laws of society -Includes culture, subculture, & social class of child
Cultural & social constructs affect daily Bx related to raising a child
Chronosystem:
Beliefs, customs, tech that change over time
-Digital age impact access to information
Impact depends on age of child
-Child plays an increasingly large role ion development
Carol Dwecks Fixed mindset:
Entity view of intelligence
- Intelligence is fixed
- Failures lead to seeking easier tasks
- Self-evaluation based on others appraisal
Carol Dwecks Growth mindset:
Incremental view of intelligence
- Intelligence can be developed with effort
- Failures result in more hard work
- Self-evaluation based on effort
Piaget’s Stages: 1) Morality of Constraint:
Through age 7
Rules are given & unchangeable
Bx that follow rules=good
Bx that break rules=bad
Believe that actions are driven by consequences, not by motives/ intentions
follow these rules very rigidly.
Piaget’s Stages 2) Transitional Period:
Roughly age 7-10
learn rules can be changed when playing
learn to take other’s perspectives/ cooperate
Leads to increased value of fairness
pre puberty
Piaget’s Stages 3) Autonomous Mortality “Moral relativism”
11-12 years of age
Realize that rules derive from social pacts
Rules can be changed by a group
-fairness & equity important for new rules
Punishment should match the violation
-Punishment by adults not always just
Motives and incentives important
“Become fully moral”
Kohlbergs stages: 1)Preconventional Moral Reasoning phase.
Preconventional moral reasoning:
- self-centered
- Focus: receive reward; avoid punishment
stage 1: Punishment & Obedience Orientation (blind obedience)
stage 2: Instrumental & Exchange Orientation (Self interest)
Kohlberg’s Stages: 2) Conventional Moral Resoning:
Social relationships
Focus: compliance w/ responsibilities/ laws
Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, & interpersonal Conformity (Behave to earn social approval or maintain relationships)
Stage 4: Social System & Conscience (Upholding societal laws to maintain social order
Kohlberg’s Stages: 3) Post conventional Moral Reasoning
Ideals
Focus: moral principles
Stage5: Social Contract/ Individual Rights (Upholding the best interests of the group while recognizing life & liberty as universal principles
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
Levels of prosocial reasoning:
- Hedonistic, self focused orientation (preschool age)
- Need-based Orientation (beginning in preschool & increasingly in early elementary school years)
3, Approval and/or Stereotyped Orientation (elementary school age)
- Self-reflective Empathetic Orientation & Transition (late childhood & adolescence)
- Strongly Internalized Stage (Late adolescence)
AGE not severely important for this cue card
Moral Judgement:
Decisions regarding right, wrong, fairness, & justice
Social Conventional Judgement:
Decisions regarding customs or regulations intended to ensure coordination and social organization (appropriate clothes, table manners, forms of greeting)
Personal Judgement:
Decisions regarding actions that are individual preferences (friends, activities, etc.)
Development of conscience:
Conscience:
-Internal regulatory mechanism that increases an individuals ability to conform with conduct standards accepted in their culture
Promotes prosocial Bx
-Causes guilt when not living up to the internalized values
Restraints antisocial/ destructive Bx
Empathy:
Emotional reaction to another’s emotional state that is highly similar to the person’s own state
requires ability to identify & understand that another is feeling an emotion
Sympathy:
Feeling of concern for another’s emotional state
Often an outcome of empathy – requires element of concern
Development of prosocial Bx:
Early actions are egocentric
-Help & comfort others the way we want to be helped & comforted
As children understand thoughts & feelings of others, develop more appropriate responses to needs of others
Frequency of prosocial Bx increases w/ age
Variability in Prosocial Bx:
Bioloical factors: genes encoding empathy & altruism
Socialization of prosocial Bx
- Modeling & teaching
- Arranging situations to engage prosocially
- Methods of discipline & elicitating prosociality
Antisocial Bx; Temperment & personality:
often difficult from a very early age
impulsivity, attention deficits, callousness as a child becomes aggression & antisocial Bx as adolescent
Variability in Antisocial Bx; Biological factors:
temperament hormone levels, neurological deficits in attention & self-regulation (vagal tone)
Variability in Antisocial Bx: Socialization factors:
Punitive Parenting
- harsh, physical punishments
- abusive punishments
Ineffective discipline
- Inconsistent discipline
- Lack of monitoring
Parental Conflict
-exposure to verbal & physical abuses
SES
- Lower SES increased risk
- Neighborhood factors
Peer Influence
- Aggressive children seek aggressive peers
- Gangs
Bowlby’s attachement theory; Preattachment:
Preattachement: Infants produce innate signals to gain attention of caregiver.
Bowlby’s attachment theory; Attachment in the making:
Attachment-in-the-making: Infants respond preferentially to familiar people. Expectations about caregiver interactions & responses
Bowlby’s Attachment theory; clear cut attachment:
Clear-cut attachment : Infants actively seek contact with caregivers. Primary caregiver typically serves as secure base.
Bowlby’s attachment theory; Reciprocal relationships:
Reciprocal relationships: Infant understands caregivers feelings, goals, & motives. Child’s role develops into working partnership w/caregiver.
Piaget’s theory of how morality changes over time:
Morality primarily advances through interactions with peers.
