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Animal Nutrition > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

functions of fat in body

A
  • source of energy (9kcal/g)
  • carrier for the fat soluble vitamins
  • source of EFA
  • insulation
  • lubricant
  • protection
  • precursors for hormones
  • structural functions
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2
Q

phospholipid bilayer

A
  • P is polar, and FA is nonpolar
  • the structure of cholesterol lends rigidity and helps keep fluidity
  • Cholesterol and cis-FA prevent hydrophobic chains from packing too tight
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3
Q

simple lipids

A
  • esters of FA with various alcohols
  • Fats and oils are esters of FA with glycerol
  • waxes are esters of FA with alcohols other than glycerol
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4
Q

compound lipids

A
  • esters of FA containing non lipid substances
  • phosphorus (phospholipid)
  • CHO (glycolipids)
  • protein (lipoprotein)
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5
Q

gross energy

A
  • 9.45 kcal/g (9 when accounting digestibility)

- most >80% digestible

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6
Q

triglycerides / triacylglycerols

A
  • 95% of dietary fat
  • 85% of stored energy in body
  • major storage form of energy in the body
  • composed of glycerol backbones attached by an ester bond to 3 FA side chains
  • typically seen as two or more different FA residues or mixed triglyceride
  • when digestion occurs, products are 2 FA and a monoglyceride
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7
Q

phospholipids

A
  • major component of cell membranes

- glycerol backbones with 2 FA and a phosphate group

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8
Q

FA

A
  • FA are the simplest of lipids

- have a polar head group (carboxylic acid) and a hydrophobic tail (hydrocarbon chain)

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9
Q

saturated FA

A
  • all C-C bonds are single
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10
Q

saturated FA C2

A

acetic

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11
Q

saturated FA C3

A

propionic

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12
Q

saturated FA C4

A

butyric

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13
Q

saturated FA C5

A

valeric

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14
Q

saturated FA C14

A

myristic

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15
Q

saturated FA C16

A

palmitic

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16
Q

saturated FA C18

A

stearic

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17
Q

saturated FA C2-C6

A

volatile and water soluble in decreasing amounts

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18
Q

saturated FA C4, C6, C8

A

in milk fat

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19
Q

saturated FA >C8

A

solid at room temp (C10 mp = 88 F)

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20
Q

saturated FA C16 and C18

A

are the most common saturated FA

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21
Q

unsaturated FA

A
  • contain one or more C=C double bond
  • one C=C bond is called monounsaturated
  • 2 or more C=C bonds are polyunsaturated
  • double bonds lowers the melting point
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22
Q

nomenclature for FA

A
  • chain elongates from the carboxyl end so start numbering at the methyl group
  • C18:2 w6 (example)
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23
Q

EFA

A
  • FA synthetase makes palmitate (C16 saturated)
  • cells elongate and desaturate
  • however, cannot desaturate between methyl end and 9th carbon
  • w3 and w6 must be in diet
  • linoleic (w6)- arachidonic acid -> prostaglandins
  • linolenic (w3) - EPA and DHA
  • need only one tablespoon of oil per day
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24
Q

sources of linoleic

A
  • corn oil, safflower, soybean, cottonseed, sunflower seed, peanut oil.
  • arachidonic acid: meats (animal fats)
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25
Q

sources of linolenic

A
  • linseed (flaxseed), canola, small amount in soybean oil

- EPA and DHA: fish oil (cold water fish) and marine algae

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26
Q

hydrogenated fat

A
  • cis typically found in nature

- trans seen in synthetic fats

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27
Q

potential problems with trans

A
  • causes unfavorable lipoprotein profile (HDL decreases and LDL and total cholesterol increases; thus adverse effect on cardiovascular disease)
  • can interfere with EFA metabolism
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28
Q

digestion of triglycerides

A
  • pancreatic lipase is major digesting enzyme
  • gastric lipase and intestinal lipase play minor role
  • nursing ruminants: pregastric esterase from base of tongue starts milk fat digestion in abomasum
  • fat enters SI from stomach as a coarse emulsion due to stomach movements
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29
Q

colipase

A
  • lipase cannot attach to lipid droplet when bile salts are present
  • acts as an anchor for lipase
  • secreted by pancreas as procolipase
  • activated by trypsin
  • required for lipase activity when bile salt is present
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30
Q

formation of chylomicron

A
  • synthesized in the intestinal epithelial cells
  • TAG is produced in the smooth ER
  • protein (apo b-48) produced in rough ER
  • assembly of lipoprotein in ER and Golgi complex
  • secreted into lymphatic system by exocytosis
  • it transports absorbed dietary fats from intestine out to tissue
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31
Q

VLDL

A
  • synthesized in liver

- transports synthesized fats from liver out to tissues

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32
Q

fate of chylomicron/ catabolism for chylomicron and VLDL

A
  • C2 is a protein that activates lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
  • LPL is on the capillary walls and can bind to the chylomicron and breaks down the lipoprotein
  • 3 FA are produced that can enter the muscle, heart, mammary, or adipose
  • glycerol is also produced as goes back to the liver (which is the only organ that can use it)
  • in adipose tissue: TG is resynthesized and stored; get glycerol from glucose - DHAP - glycerol-p
  • in other tissue cells: fat can be oxidized for energy
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33
Q

after breakdown of chylomicron and VLDL

A
  • chylomicron remnant metabolized by liver
  • VLDL becomes LDL: LDL can deliver cholesterol to cells. HDL picks up cholesterol from body cells. LDL also accepts cholesterol from HDL. Liver removes LDL from blood and converts cholesterol to bile.
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34
Q

Km

A
  • heart LPL has low Km
  • adipose has higher (10x) Km: fed or fasted state, heart enzyme remains saturated, thus redirects uptake of fat from adipose tissue towards heart
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35
Q

fat digestion by ruminants

A
  • TG in diet goes to FA and glycerol
  • 70-90% of FA is saturated by bacteria and goes to small intestine to eventually form chylomicron
  • glycerol is converted to DHAP to pyruvate to propionate. Most propionate is converted to glucose and goes back to liver.
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36
Q

saturated and trans FA in ruminants

A
  • enough FA escape saturation to prevent EFA deficiency in ruminants
  • ruminant fat is more saturated than nonruminants
  • trans FA: ruminant meat and dairy products = 1-8% of fat is trans FA; up to 40-50% of hydrogenated vegetable oils are trans FA; 75-90% of trans FA in U.S. diet from hydrogenated oils
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37
Q

conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

A
  • found in dietary products and other ruminant foods
  • formed by microorganisms in rumen
  • cis-9, trans-11 octadecadienoic acid most common
  • conjugated (c=c-c=c)
  • normal (c=c-c-c=c)
  • anti-carcinogenic effects: inhibits proliferation of some cancers
  • antiatherogenic effects: lowers total and LDL cholesterol
  • reduces fat and increases lean body mass
  • enhances some immune response
  • increases rate of bone formation in growing animals
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38
Q

IDL

A
  • produced in blood (remnant of VLDL)

- endocytosed by liver or converted to LDL

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39
Q

LDL

A
  • produced in blood (remnant of IDL; end product of VLDL)
  • contains high concentration of cholesterol and cholesterol esters
  • endocytosed by liver and peripheral tissues
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40
Q

HDL

A
  • produced in liver and intestine
  • exchanges proteins and lipids with other lipoproteins
  • functions in the return of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver
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41
Q

there are several needs that are met by blood glucose

A
  • liver glycogen
  • muscle glycogen
  • fat formation
  • tissue oxidation
    • fat cannot be used for net synthesis of glucose **
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42
Q

what happens after you eat?

A
  • dietary glucose enters blood
  • some glucose used by liver to replenish liver glycogen supply
  • other glucose goes to muscle and other extra-hepatic tissues
43
Q

what are the primary transports for TG out into tissues?

A

chylomicron and VLDL

44
Q

what are the primary glycogen storage areas?

A

liver and muscle

45
Q

what two areas use GLUT 4 for glucose uptake in the fed state?

A

adipose and muscle

46
Q

these two areas have low Km for glucose

A

brain and rbc

47
Q

uses only glucose

A

rbc

48
Q

prefers glucose but switches to ketone bodies under starvation

A

brain

49
Q

FA synthesis

A
  • in the cytosol of the cell
  • acetyl-coa formed in mitochondria
  • acetyl-coa cant cross membrane
  • it gets across the membrane by citrate
  • FA synthesis requires NADPH and gets it from malic enzyme and pentose phosphate pathway
50
Q

Acetyl-coa to cytosol and generation of NADPH

A
  • pyruvate goes into cell and goes under two reactions to form OAA and acetyl-coa
  • OAA and acetyl-coa come together to form citrate
  • citrate crosses out of the membrane into cytosol
  • once in cytosol, citrate splits back into OAA and acetyl-coa
  • OAA is then converted to malate
  • malate then is converted back to pyruvate by the malic enzyme which is where NADPH comes from
  • NADPH also comes from pentose phosphate pathway by going from G-6-P to F-6-P and G-3-P
51
Q

what happens between meals (post-absorptive/basal state)

A
  • supply of dietary glucose decreases
  • liver takes over in controlling blood glucose by breaking down glycogen
  • fattening stops
  • gluconeogenesis from AA (also glycerol, and lactate) begins
  • some tissues begin shifting to FA as source of fuel (not brain or rbc)
  • muscle operates from glycogen glucose and from fat (all muscle glycogen is not depleted, saved for emergency)
52
Q

most gluconeogenesis is in the __?

A

liver (some in kidney)

53
Q

FA binds to ___ and are carried to tissues

A

blood protein albumin

54
Q

fat breakdown

A
  • pancreatic lipase
  • lipoprotein lipase of wall
  • hormone sensitive lipase
55
Q

common ketone bodies

A
  • acetoacetic acid

- beta-hydroxybutyrate

56
Q

glucagon

A
  • stimulates breakdown glycogen
  • stimulates mobilization of stored TG
  • involved in stimulation to make AA available for gluconeogenesis
57
Q

gluconeogenesis from AA…Entry points of AA

A
  • acetoacetate
  • acetyl-coa
  • pyruvate
  • a-keto-glutarate
  • succinyl- coa
  • fumarate
  • oxaloacetate
58
Q

gluconeogenesis from pyruvate

A
  • pep converted to pyruvate which crosses into the mitochondria and is converted into OAA
  • OAA can’t cross membrane so it is converted to malate which crosses the membrane back into the cytosol to be converted back to OAA which goes back to PEP
59
Q

Transfer/removal of NH2 group from AA

A
  • transamination

- results in a-keto acid

60
Q

only organ with deaminases

A

liver

61
Q

Alanine’s corresponding keto acid

A

pyruvate

62
Q

aspartic acid’s corresponding keto acid

A

oxaloacetic acid

63
Q

glutamic acid’s corresponding keto acid

A

a-keto glutarate

64
Q

leucine’s corresponding keto acid

A

a-ketoisocaproic acid

65
Q

glucose-alanine cycle

A
  • glucose in blood goes to muscle
  • glucose then converted to pyruvate
  • pyruvate goes to alanine with the addition of NH2, which is transported to liver
  • in the liver, alanine loses the NH2 (which goes to urea), and becomes pyruvate
  • pyruvate converted back to glucose and glucose exits into the blood to start cycle again
66
Q

starved state

A
  • all liver glycogen depleted
  • glucose is formed from AA (primarily), lactate, and glycerol
  • muscle operates largely on fat and animal is loosing weight (muscle glycogen is not depleted except in emergency; muscle glycogen foes not go to blood glucose)
  • nerve tissue use ketones primarily for energy
  • glucose saved for RBC and some nerve tissue uses
67
Q

for short term help with ketosis

A
  • iv of dextrose

- injection of glucocorticoids

68
Q

pregnancy toxemia

A
  • with sheep (practically ketosis, just by different cause)
  • sheep have high incidence of twinning. So the fetuses take up a lot of space where rumen normally is. Now ewe cant eat as much, so she starts mobilizing fats instead of ketones and ketone bodies rise.
69
Q

hardware disease

A

may swallow nail or other tool/metal object. It falls into reticulum and can poke a hole and cause the contents to spill out in abdominal cavity. Infection can arise due to microorganisms.

70
Q

reticulum

A
  • called “honeycomb”
  • no secretory glands, same cells as esophagus
  • 5% of stomach
  • provides passage to omasum (particle size is important)
71
Q

rumen

A
  • no secretory glands, same cells as esophagus

- 80% of stomach

72
Q

omasum

A
  • “many plies”
  • many sheets of tissue
  • feed passes through these tissue layers for mainly water removal
  • 7-8% of stomach
73
Q

abomasum

A
  • “true stomach”
  • secretes HCl and pepsin
  • 7-8% of stomach
74
Q

reticulo-rumen

A
  • anaerobic fermentation (mostly bacteria and protozoa)
  • 25-50 billion bacteria/ml
  • 200,000-500,000 protozoa/ml
  • numbers/types in population change with diet
  • protozoa numbers are higher with forage diet (lower pH)
  • near neutral pH
  • no digestive secretions - microbial action
  • produce CH4, H2, CO2 (bacteria use CO2 and H2 to make CH4)
75
Q

what happens to feed in ruminants?

A
  • animal bites and bolus swallowed
  • enters reticulum/rumen
  • musculature of rumen mixes feed with liquid and other contents of rumen
  • rumination cycle
  • bolus re-enters rumen (more finely chewed)
  • while in rumen, microorganisms are digesting feed
76
Q

rumination

A
  • regurgitation
  • remastication
  • reinsalivation (saliva high in bicarbonate which is a good buffer)
  • redeglutition
  • cycle takes ~1 min
  • ruminate 7-10.5 hrs/day (avg ~8)
77
Q

symbolic relationship

A
  • ruminant provides feed and space

- microorganisms digest feed (particularly cellulose) and provide essential nutrients

78
Q

how long does feed stay in rumen?

A
  • 48-52 hr for roughages (longer for poorer quality)
  • 18-22 hr for grain
  • particle size is important in allowing feed particles to pass to the omasum
79
Q

eructation

A
  • gases (mostly CO2 and CH4) must be expelled
  • eructation (belching)
  • if not, then bloat occurs
  • clover and alfalfa have lot of alkaloids. Gases get trapped in bubbles which block the opening to the esophagus and cannot escape, thus bloating occurs.
80
Q

what causes bloat?

A
  • froth blocks cardia
  • gas cant escape
  • rumen fills like balloon
  • if no relief, death due to suffocation
81
Q

treatment for bloat

A
  • give surfactant (corn oil)
  • tube down throat
  • trochar in paralumbar fossa (last resort)
  • stick in mouth
  • feed poloxalene (bloat guard)
82
Q

newborn and rumen development

A
  • reticulum, rumen, omasum very small and nonfunctional at birth
  • only abomasum is functional (largest part of stomach)
  • milk passes straight to abomasum
  • by 3 weeks, rumen is developing
  • coarse or fibrous feeds hasten development
  • by 3-4 months rumen is fully functional
  • microbial population introduced through contact with mother, other animals, soil
83
Q

Thiamin (B1)

A
  • forms thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP)
  • catalyzes decarboxylation reactions (lose CO2)
  • pyruvate —(TPP)–> acetyl coa
  • a ketoglutarate –(TPP)–> succinyl coa
84
Q

Riboflavin (B2)

A
  • functions in oxidative reduction rxns
  • FAD is one coenzyme and can accept 2 H in oxidation rxns
  • succinate –(FAD)–> fumarate
  • FA –(FAD)–> acetyl coa
  • oxidation of some AA
  • the reduced form (FADH2) can enter the electron transport system , be oxidized back to FAD, and 2 molecules of ATP will be formed
85
Q

Niacin

A
  • coenzyme for oxidation reduction rxns
  • involved in several rxns in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
  • FA –(NAD)–> acetyl coa
  • NADH2 can enter the electron transport system, be oxidized back to NAD and 3 molecules of ATP will be formed.
  • another coenzyme, NADPH, is necessary for some synthetic rxns such as FA synthesis
86
Q

Pantothenic acid

A
  • part of the structure of coenzyme A
  • acetyl coa has a central role in metabolism
  • FA oxidation begins with the formation of fatty acyl- coa
  • coa compounds are necessary for FA synthesis
  • a ketoglutarate –(coa)–> succinyl coa
  • propionate –(coa)–> succinyl coa
87
Q

Pyridoxine (B6)

A
  • forms a coenzyme called pyridoxal phosphate which is necessary for several enzymes involved in AA metabolism
  • all AA transanimation and deaminations require pyridoxal phosphate. The amino group must be removed before AA can be oxidized via the Krebs cycle for energy or used for gluconeogenesis
  • required in the decarboxylation of AA
88
Q

Biotin

A
  • involved in carboxylation rxns in which CO2 is added to form a new C-C bond
  • pyruvate —> oxaloacetate
  • acetyl coa —> malonyl coa ( FA synthesis)
  • propionate —> succinyl coa
89
Q

Frolic acid

A
  • involved in the transfer of methyl groups such as in some AA rxns and the synthesis of DNA and RNA
90
Q

Cobalamin (B12)

A
  • propionate –> succinyl coa
  • normal blood cell formation
  • transfer of methyl groups
91
Q

Reticular groove

A
  • located at base of esophagus
  • normally open
  • closes in nursing calf
  • barium sulfate and X-rays
  • can be restimulated to close in adult cattle and sheep
92
Q

Horse digestive tract

A
  • similar to simple stomach animals except for relatively large cecum at the beginning of LI
  • microbial fermentation similar to rumen
  • cannot use microbial protein (cecum is behind small intestine)
93
Q

Fistula

A
  • opening from outside into an inner cavity
  • rumen fistula
    + paralumbar fossa
    + make incision then suture rumen wall to skin
    + later, cut out area of rumen and insert cannula
    + animal is essentially unaffected
94
Q

Glucose and ruminants

A
  • only ~15% glucose needed is absorbed
  • rely on gluconeogenesis
  • intestinal cells use more glucose than absorbed
  • have negative drop in glucose across mesentery
95
Q

Primary source of energy in ruminants

A
  • VFA
96
Q

Primary carbon source for glucose in ruminants

A

Propionate

97
Q

CHO utilization in rumen

A
  • most CHO utilized by rumen microorganisms, this very little glucose absorbed by ruminants
  • VFA account for ~70% or more of animals energy needs by 1. Oxidation of VFA via TCA cycle and 2. Conversion of propionate to glucose then oxidize glucose
98
Q

Acetate and VFA metabolism in ruminants

A
  • extra hepatic
  • absorbed from rumen - portal blood - liver - body tissues
  • can be used for energy, body fat synthesis, and milk fat synthesis during lactation
99
Q

Propionate and VFA metabolism in ruminants

A
  • hepatic
  • absorbed from rumen - portal blood - liver - very little leaves liver
  • can be used for energy, glucose synthesis, synthesis of certain AA
  • not used for fat synthesis
100
Q

Neither __ nor __ can be used for fat synthesis

A

Propionate; glucose

101
Q

Butyrate and VFA metabolism in ruminants

A
  • extra hepatic
  • converted to b hydroxybutyrate (half during absorption from rumen; and after reaching liver)
  • b-oh-butyrate is one of the ketone bodies
  • can be used for energy, body fat synthesis, and milk fat synthesis during lactation
102
Q

FA synthesis in ruminants

A
  • don’t have enough citrate lyase and malic enzyme
  • acetate in cytosol can be turned into acetyl coa
  • use pentose phosphate pathway for NADPH
103
Q

Carbon source in FA synthesis in ruminants

A

Acetate

104
Q

Primary byproduct of glucose in ruminants

A

VFA

Animal Nutrition (3 decks)

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