Exam 3-6 review guide Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
proteins that catalyze specific biochemical reactions
A
Enzymes
2
Q
the buildup of larger molecules from smaller ones and requires energy
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Anabolism
3
Q
the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones and releases energy
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Catabolism
4
Q
anabolic process that joins small molecules by releasing the equivalent of a water molecule; synthesis
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Dehydration Synthesis
5
Q
an example of catabolism; it decomposes carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, and splits a water molecule in the process
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Hydrolysis
6
Q
The target of enzyme action
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Substrate
7
Q
The part of an enzyme molecule that binds a substrate
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Active site
8
Q
A small molecules or ion that must combine with an enzyme for activity
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Cofactor
9
Q
A nonprotein organic molecule required for the activity of a particular enzyme
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Coenzyme
10
Q
An ability to move something and thus do work
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Energy
11
Q
Process by which oxygen combines with another chemical; the removal of hydrogen it the loss of electrons; opposite of reduction
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Oxidation
12
Q
The energy releasing breakdown of glucose to produce 2 pyruvic acid molecules
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Glycolysis
13
Q
Series of chemical reactions that oxidizes certain molecules, releasing energy
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Citric acid cycle/ Krebs cycle
14
Q
Series of metabolic reactions that capture the energy in the bonds of nutrient molecules as ATP
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Electron transport chain
15
Q
Organic molecule that stores and released energy, which may be produced in cellular processes
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ATP
16
Q
The complete, emergy-releasing, breakdown off glucose to carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of oxygen
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Aerobic respiration
17
Q
A sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions
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Metabolic pathway
18
Q
Molecules that hold information in the form of genetic code
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DNA
19
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The portions of DNA molecules that contain the genetic information for making particular proteins
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Genes
20
Q
The complete set of genetic instructions in a cell
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Genome
21
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Production of an exact copy of a DNA molecule
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Replication
22
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Correspondence between DNA base triplets and particular amino acids
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Genetic code
23
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Copying DNA to RNA
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Transcription
24
Q
The type of RNA that carries a gene’s message out of the nucleus
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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A single stranded molecule whose nucleotides each include the sugar ribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, uracil, guanine, or cytosine)
RNA
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Three-base sequences
Codon
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RNA to amino acid
Translation
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An RNA molecule that correctly aligns amino acids
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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The three nucleotides in the tRNA
Anticodon
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The slowest step in a metabolic pathway or series of chemical reactions, which determines the overall rate of the other reactions in the pathway. The first enzyme in a series; requires the most activation energy
Rate-limiting enzyme
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The set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
Cellular respiration
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Glycolysis that does not require oxygen
Anaerobic respiration
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An ATP molecule that has lost its terminal phosphate
ADP
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Joins together nucleotides in a DNA sequence; they alternate to form the outside of the DNA structure
Sugar-phosphate backbone
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Projects from the backbone and binds weakly to the bases of the second strand to form the rungs of the DNA structure
Nitrogen bases
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describes the manner in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules align with eachother; responsible for the double-helix structure of DNA
Complimentary base pairing
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an enzyme that unwinds and separates the two strands of the DNA double helix
Helicase
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An enzyme that brings in new DNA nucleotides, forming complementary pairs with the exposed bases
DNA polymerase
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A boundary that regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell, and is the site of much biological activity
Cell membrane
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Houses the genetic material and controls cellular activities
Nucleus
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Fills out the cell; contains organelles
Cytoplasm
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Specialized structures within the cytoplasm
Organelles
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Only certain substances can enter or leave the cell
Selectively permeable
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Abundance of protein rods and tubules that form a framework in the cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
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Contains enzymes important in lipid synthesis, absorption of fats from the digestive tract, and the metabolism of drugs
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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An organelle covered with ribosomes: A site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
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A site of protein synthesis
Ribosomes
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A stack of about six flattened, membranous sacs that refines, packages, and transports proteins synthesized on ribosomes associated with the ER
Golgi apparatus
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The powerhouse of the cell
Mitochondria
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Contains powerful enzymes that break down nutrient molecules or foreign particles
Lysosomes
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These house enzymes that catalyze (speed) a variety of biochemical reactions, including synthesis of bile acids (used to digest fats)
Peroxisomes
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Tiny rods of actin protein that form meshworks or bundles that provide cell movement and forms the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
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Long, slender tubes with diameter two or three times those of microfilaments; both of these form the cytoskeleton
Microtubules
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During mitosis, the centrioles in this distribute chromosomes to newly forming cells
Centrosome
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Motile structure attached beneath the cell membrane that propels fluid over cellular surfaces
Cilia
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Motile structure attached beneath the cell membrane that enables a speed cell to move
Flagella
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Membranous sacs that contain and transport various substances
Vesicles
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Double membrane that separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm
Nuclear envelope
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Dense, nonmembranous body composed of protein and RNA
Nucleolus
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Fibers composed of protein and RNA and it is the site of ribosome synthesis
Chromatin
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Rodlike structures that condense from chromatin in a cell's nucleus during mitosis
Chromosomes
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The movement of substances into and out of cells that do not require cellular energy
Passive transport
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The process by which molecules or ions scatter or spread spontaneously from regions of high concentration to low concentrations
Diffusion
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Uniformly distributed in the water
Equilibrium
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A process that allows substances to pass through the lipid bilayer through the help of membrane proteins
Facilitated diffusion
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A special case of diffusion that occurs whenever water molecules diffuse from a region of high to low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane
Osmosis
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A solution with the same osmotic pressure as the solution (usually body fluids) with which it is compared
Isotonic
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A solution with a greater osmotic pressure than the solution (usually body fluids) with which it is compared
Hypertonic
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A solution with a lower osmotic pressure than the solution (usually body fluids) with which it is compared
Hypotonic
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Molecules are forced from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure
Filtration
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Process that requires energy to move a substance across a cell membrane, usually against the concentration gradient
Active Transport
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Transport of substances out of a cell in membrane bounded vesicles
Exocytosis
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Process by which a cell membrane envelops a substance and draws it into the cell in a vesicle
Endocytosis
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Membrane engulfs droplets of liquid from surroundings
Pinocytosis
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Membrane engulfs particles from surroundings
Phagocytosis
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Receptors bind specific ligands, and they are drawn into the cell
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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Period between cell divisions when a cell metabolizes and prepared to divide.
Interphase (G1, S, G2)
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A form of cell division that produces two somatic cells with identical chromosome numbers as the original somatic cell
Mitosis
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Stage of mitosis when chromosomes become visible
Prophase
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Stage in mitosis when chromosomes align in the middle of the cell
Metaphase
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Stage in mitosis when duplicate chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell
Anaphase
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Stage in mitosis when newly formed cells separate
Telophase
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Division of the cytoplasm
Cytokinesis
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Cell specialization
Differentiation
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An undifferentiated cell that can divide to yield two daughter stem cells, or a stem cell and a progenitor cell
Stem cells
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Programmed cell death
Apoptosis
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a thin extracellular supporting layer that separates a layer of epithelial cells from the underlying lamina propria and is composed of the basal lamina and reticular lamina
Basement membrane
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Single layer of thin, flattened cells with broad and thin nuclei. It lines the air sacs of the lungs and the walls of capillaries
Simple Squamous Epithelium
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single layer of cube-shaped cells with a centrally located, spherical nuclei. It covers the ovaries, the ducts of certain glands, and kidney tubules
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
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Elongated, single layer of cells. Lines the uterus and most organs of the digestive tract
Simple Columnar Epithelium
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single layer of cells that appear stratified or layered, but are not. Lines the oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, and anal canal.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
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many cell layers make this tissue relatively thick. Forms the outer layer of the skin (epidermis)
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
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2 or 3 layers of cuoidal cells that form the lining of a lumen. Lines the larger ducts of the mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, and pancreas
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
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Several layers of cells. The superficial cells are columnar, where the basal layers consist of cuboidal cells. Found in the male urethra, the ductus deferens, and parts of the pharynx
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
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composed of protein fibers, and a ground substance consisting of nonfibrous protein and other molecules, and fluid
Extracellular matrix connective tissue
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large, star-shaped cells that produce fibers by secreting proteins into the extracellular matrix of connective tissues
Fibroblasts
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These can move about and function as scavenger and defensive cells that clear foreign particles from tissues
Macrophages
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large and widely distributed in connective tissues; prevents blood clotting
Mast cells
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thick threads that are grouped in long, parallel bundles,and are flexible but only slightly elastic; holds structures together
Collagenous fibers
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thin fibers that branch and form complex networks; common in the vocal cords
elastic fibers
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very thin collagenous fibers; located in the spleen
reticular fibers
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cells are mainly fibroblasts, and are located some distance apart. Function is to bind the skin to the underlying organs and fill spaces between muscles
loose connective tissue (areolar)
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stores fat droplets in cytoplasm; functions as an insulator and cushion, and also stores energy
Adipose
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forms the inner lining of the urinary bladder and lines the ureters; several layers of cuboidal cells, however it changes appearance when the tissue stretches
Transitional Epithelium
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composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete substances into ducts or body fluids
Glandular Epithelium
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glands that secrete their products into ducts that open onto surfaces, such as the skin or the lining of the digestive tract
Exocrine glands
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glands that secrete their products into tissue fluid or blood
Endocrine glands
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glands that release fluid by exocytosis
merocrine glands
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glands that lose small portions of their glandular cell bodies during secretion
apocrine glands
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glands that release entire cells that disintegrate to release cell secretions
holocrine glands
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composed of thin, collagenous fibers in a three-dimensional network; helps to provide the framework for organs such as the liver and spleen
reticular connective tissue
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consists of many closely packed, thick, collagenous fibers and a fine network of elastic fibers; parts of tendons and ligaments
Dense connective tissue
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cartilage cells that occupy small chambers called lacunae and lie completely within the extracellular matrix
Chondrocytes
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the most common type;fine collagenous fibers; found on the end of bones in many joints, in the soft part of the nose, and in the supporting rings of the respiratory passages
Hyaline Cartilage
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a dense network of elastic fibers; provides the framework for the external ears and for parts of the larynx
Elastic Cartilage
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a very tough tissue, a shock absorber for structures like between the individual bones of the spinal column, or in the knees
Fibrocartilage
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most rigid connective tissue; internally supports body structures
Bone
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transports a variety of materials between interior body cells and those that exchange substances with the external environment; maintains homeostasis
Blood
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lines the body cavities that lack openings to the outside
Serous membranes
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lines cavities and tubes that open to the outside of the body
Mucous membranes
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lines joints; composed entirely of connective tissues
Synovial membranes
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the skin
Cutaneous membranes
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Voluntarily controlled, striated, several nuclei per cell, found attached to bones, and contains long, nonbranching cylindrical cells
Skeletal muscle tissue
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Involuntarily controlled, single nucleus per cell, found in the walls of the stomach, uterus, and arteries, contains spindle-shaped cells, and changes the internal volume of an organ as it contracts
Smooth muscle tissue
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involuntarily controlled, striated, single nucleus, contains branching cylindrical cells, intercalated discs, and only in the heart
Cardiac muscle tissue
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nerve cells; they sense certain types of changes in their surroundings
neurons
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support and bind the components of the nervous tissue, carry on phagocytosis, and help supply nutrients to neurons by connecting them to blood vessels
neuroglial cells
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found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervessup
Nervous tissue
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the skin and the various accessory structures associated with it (hair,finger nails, sensory receptors, and glands)
Integumentary system
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the outer layer of the skin, composed of the stratified squamous epithelium
Epidermis
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the inner layer of the skin, thicker than the epidermis; a basement membrane anchors the epidermis to the dermis and separates these two skin layers
Dermis
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predominantly adipose tissue; the layer beneath the skin that binds the skin to the underlying organs
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
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the older cells harden in this process
keratinization
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the bottoms layer in the epidermis that is responsible for constantly renewing epidermal cells
stratum basale
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specialized cells in the epidermis that produce melanin
melanocytes
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a dark pigment that provides skin color
melanin
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the boundary between the epidermis and dermis is uneven because epidermal ridges project inward and conical projections of dermis and these extend into the spaces between the ridges
dermal papillae
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where the sweat pores open
epidermal ridges
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protective coverings on the ends of the fingers and toes
nails
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the whitish, thickened, half-moon-shaped region at the base of a nail plate covering the most actively growing region
lunula
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the area of modified epithelium beneath the nail, over which the nail plate slides forward as it grows
nail bed
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a tubelike depression in the epidermis where hair develops
hair follicle
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the nongrowing portion of a hair that protrudes from the skin, that is, from the follicle
hair shaft
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the part of a hair that is embedded in a hair follicle
hair root
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a bundle of smooth muscle cells that attach to each hair follicle
Arrector pilli
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dark hair pigment
Eumelanin
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reddish-yellow pigment
Pheomelanin
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specialized epithelial cells associated with hair follicles that create sebum through small ducts into the hair follicles
Sebaceous glands
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an oily mixture of fatty material and cellular debris; helps keep the hair and skin soft, pliable, and waterproof
Sebum
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exocrine glands that are widespread throughout the skin and consists of a tiny tube that originates as a ball-shaped coil in the deeper dermis or subcutaneous layer
Sweat glands
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the most abundant sweat glands that respond throughout life to body temperature elevated by environmental heat or physical exercise
Eccrine glands
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sweat gland that becomes active at puberty
apocrine glands
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secretes ear wax in the external ear canal
ceruminous glands
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female gland that secretes milk
mammary glands
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a normal response of a wound and the area surrounding it to become red and painfully swollen from injury or stress
inflammation
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covers and protects underlying tissues by blood clotting and tissue fluids drying
scab
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newly formed connective tissue if the wound is extensive
scar
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the formation of small, rounded masses in large, open wounds during healing
granulations
